創(chuàng)作、翻譯、編譯、還是抄襲?(上)
——評(píng)方舟子的《“智商”的誤區(qū)》
葛莘(亦明)
2011-01-26光明網(wǎng)
責(zé)任編輯:譚靖東
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[光明網(wǎng)編者按]我們收到了來自美國的華人學(xué)者葛莘博士來稿,本網(wǎng)作為關(guān)注國內(nèi)外知識(shí)版權(quán)保護(hù)問題的政府重點(diǎn)新聞網(wǎng)站,認(rèn)為葛莘博士文中提到的問題是當(dāng)前國內(nèi)外媒體關(guān)注的一個(gè)存在不同觀點(diǎn)的焦點(diǎn)問題。為了給中國學(xué)術(shù)界、知識(shí)界以及公眾以實(shí)證個(gè)案為基礎(chǔ),提供多角度、多視野的觀點(diǎn),現(xiàn)把此篇國外學(xué)者的文章發(fā)表。必須說明:我們發(fā)表此文并不表示光明網(wǎng)完全認(rèn)同作者觀點(diǎn),只是作為學(xué)術(shù)爭鳴之用,作者來稿也聲明文責(zé)自負(fù)。
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方舟子先生是著名科普作家,撰寫了大量科普文章,在國內(nèi)的影響很大。令人驚異的是,方先生的科普范圍十分廣泛,從生物學(xué)到物理學(xué),從西方科學(xué)哲學(xué)到中國傳統(tǒng)醫(yī)學(xué),他都曾經(jīng)涉足。更加讓人不解的是,方先生的文章幾乎從來不提及自己的參考文獻(xiàn)。因此,一個(gè)十分明顯的問題就是,方先生的知識(shí)到底是從哪里來的?
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《牛頓-科學(xué)雜志》2002年第4期發(fā)表了方先生的《“智商”的誤區(qū)》一文。這篇文章后來又在《青年科學(xué)》(2003年第1期)、《教師博覽》(2003年第5期)、《科技文萃》(2004年第3期)上發(fā)表。2007年,方舟子的文集《方舟子破解世界之謎》出版,這篇文章以《“智商”是不可改變的嗎?》為題被全文收入。
筆者幾年前閱讀這篇文章時(shí),即有一種似曾相識(shí)的感覺。近日一個(gè)偶然的機(jī)會(huì),終于發(fā)現(xiàn)了其中的奧秘。原來,這篇文章基本上是根據(jù)兩本英文書翻譯而成。這兩本書分別是,已故哈佛大學(xué)教授、著名科學(xué)史學(xué)者古爾德(Stephen Jay Gould, 1941-2002)寫的《誤測(cè)人類》(The Mismeasure of Man),1981年初版,1996年再版。另一本書是加拿大西安大略大學(xué)數(shù)學(xué)教授道尼(Alexander Keewatin Dewdney, 1041-)寫的《對(duì),我們沒有中子》(Yes, we have no neutrons),1997年出版。這兩本書各有一章專門講述“智商”的發(fā)展史,它們分別是《誤測(cè)人類》的第五章《智商的遺傳學(xué)派理論:一個(gè)美國的發(fā)明》(The Hereditarian Theory of IQ: An American Invention.見該書176-263頁),和《對(duì),我們沒有中子》的第二章《智力數(shù)字:智商的古怪理論》(Mind Numbers: The Curious Theory of the Intelligence Quotient. 見該書29-45頁)。
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大致說來,古爾德的書屬于學(xué)術(shù)著術(shù),篇幅比較大,敘述詳細(xì),論證嚴(yán)密,引用文字也比較多。而道尼的書,則屬于反“偽科學(xué)”的科普書,文字淺顯,篇幅也比較簡短。實(shí)際上,道尼書的第二章,完全可以看作是古爾德書第五章的縮寫,因?yàn)椴徽搹膬?nèi)容還是從視角來看,它都沒有超出后者的范圍。只不過是,道尼在文章中提到古爾德的著作,并且還把它列為“深入閱讀書目”中,所以,不能算是抄襲之作。
而方舟子的《“智商”的誤區(qū)》,實(shí)際上就是以道尼的文章為骨架,然后根據(jù)古爾德的文章來充實(shí)內(nèi)容寫成的。
《“智商”的誤區(qū)》與英語著述:驚人的相同
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1、結(jié)構(gòu)相同
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不計(jì)標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號(hào),《“智商”的誤區(qū)》全文6136字,分為13個(gè)自然段。除了第一段367字、第12段后半部分287字、和末尾段258字筆者沒有找到相應(yīng)的英文原文之外,其余的文字,即85%的文字,都是根據(jù)英文文章寫成。而這些文字中,又有80%的文字來自前面提到的兩本書。換句話說就是,方文從第二段開始,到第十一段的上半段,幾乎全部來自古爾德和道尼這兩本書。(見下表)。這個(gè)表格說明,方文的整體結(jié)構(gòu)、敘述方式與古爾德和道尼的英文文章完全相同。(注:方文第十一段的后半段,根據(jù)的是1997年7月31日《自然》雜志的一篇文章,第十二段上半部分,根據(jù)的可能是2000年英國廣播公司BBC的一篇新聞報(bào)道。)
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2、觀點(diǎn)相同
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誠然,方舟子的文章根據(jù)智商概念的發(fā)展歷史來進(jìn)行敘述,而古爾德和道尼也是做相似的敘述,因此方文如果僅僅在結(jié)構(gòu)上與他們的文章相同,并不十分奇怪。奇怪的是,方舟子與古爾德、道尼的觀點(diǎn)也完全一致。不論是古爾德的文章,還是道尼的文章,主旨都是一樣的,那就是批駁所謂“智商學(xué)派”的基因決定論。而他們的這個(gè)觀點(diǎn),又都是基于所謂的“整體主義”哲學(xué)觀。可是,方舟子是堅(jiān)定的還原主義者,認(rèn)為“還原主義是一種科學(xué)思想,它認(rèn)為高層次可以還原成低層次、整體可以還原成各組分加以研究。”(見其《還原主義的勝利》,2000年3月15日《中華讀書報(bào)》),“還原是一種完善的研究方法,研究各組分的關(guān)系足以推導(dǎo)、解釋整體的性質(zhì)。”(見其《還原主義和整體主義述評(píng)》,《自然辯證法研究》2000年11期)。因此,在“智商”這個(gè)問題上,方舟子本來應(yīng)該與古爾德、道尼水火不相容才對(duì)。可是,方舟子的觀點(diǎn)不僅與他們完全一致,他還更進(jìn)一步,下了這樣的斷言:“找到某個(gè)特定的智力基因的可能性可以說為零。”顯然,方舟子在寫作這篇文章時(shí)已經(jīng)完全接受了古爾德等人的整體主義觀點(diǎn)。
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3、文字相同
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當(dāng)然,最讓人驚異的是,方文幾乎就是古爾德、道尼英文文章的直接翻譯。可以這樣說,從第二段起,到第九段止,幾乎每句話都可以在這兩篇英文文章中找到相應(yīng)的文字。即使是一些無法確定來源的字句,其內(nèi)容也都是根據(jù)這兩個(gè)人的觀點(diǎn)和材料發(fā)揮而成。且看以下幾段文字的比較:
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方舟子:1905年發(fā)表的第一版只是把測(cè)試問題按從易到難排列。在1908年發(fā)表的第二版中,比納把這些問題按“心理年齡”排列。
古爾德:The original 1905 edition simply arranged the tasks in an ascending order of difficulty. The 1908 version established the criterion used in measuring the so-called IQ ever since. (179頁)
方舟子:受測(cè)試者從為最小的心理年齡設(shè)計(jì)的問題開始測(cè)試,難度逐漸增加,與受測(cè)試者所能回答的最后問題相關(guān)的心理年齡就是這個(gè)受測(cè)試者的心理年齡。受測(cè)試者的心理年齡減去其實(shí)際年齡,即是其智力水平。
古爾德:A child began the Binet test with tasks for the youngest age and proceeded in sequence until he could no longer complete the tasks. The age associated with the last tasks he could perform became his "mental age," and his general intellectual level was calculated by subtracting this mental age from his true chronological age.(179-180頁)
方舟子:如果心理年齡低于實(shí)際年齡,說明未達(dá)到同齡人的學(xué)習(xí)能力水平,那就需要特別輔導(dǎo)。
古爾德:Children whose mental ages were sufficiently behind their chronological ages could then be identified for special educational programs, (180頁)
方舟子:在 1912年,德國心理學(xué)家威廉·斯登(William Stern)認(rèn)為,將心理年齡除以實(shí)際年齡,更能準(zhǔn)確地反映智力水平,“智商”(IQ)由此誕生。
古爾德:In 1912 the German psychologist W. Stern argued that mental age should be divided by chronological age, not subtracted from it, and the intelligence quotient, or IQ, was born. (180頁)
方舟子:在當(dāng)時(shí),心理學(xué)上把精神發(fā)育遲滯分成兩種:心理年齡不到三歲,不具有完備的語言能力的被稱為白癡,心理年齡在三歲到七歲之間,有語言能力但沒有閱讀、書寫能力的被稱為癡愚。
道尼:In Goddard's time, psychologists defined "idiots" as those who never developed full speech and could barely progress beyond the general competence of a three year-old. The next higher classification, "imbeciles," could speak well enough but seemed incapable of learning to read or write. An imbecile, by definition, had a mental age of somewhere between three and seven years. (32 頁)。
方舟子:戈達(dá)德認(rèn)為,在癡愚和正常人之間,還應(yīng)該存在一個(gè)心理年齡在八到十二歲的等級(jí),他稱之為愚魯。愚魯?shù)娜四軌驅(qū)W會(huì)閱讀、書寫,但是其能力永遠(yuǎn)達(dá)不到正常人的水平。
道尼:To bring the taxonomy of mental retardation up to date, Goddard coined the word "moron.” One level above imbeciles, morons occupied a gray area between idiots and imbeciles on the one hand, and fully competent people the other. Morons might learn to read and write, but their skills would always be somewhat marginal. (32 頁)。
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顯然,如此相似的文字,或者說相同,出自巧合的可能性根本就不存在。
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4、錯(cuò)誤相同
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不僅結(jié)構(gòu)相同、觀點(diǎn)相同、文字相同,方文的一個(gè)錯(cuò)誤也與道尼的一模一樣。原來,道尼為了證明智商不是先天決定的,而是可以受后天教育影響的,于是援引了一個(gè)1946年的例子。而方舟子把這段話完完全全地照譯了過來:
方舟子:但是智商學(xué)派卻認(rèn)定他們測(cè)定的是受遺傳因素決定的、天生的、不可改變的普遍智力。在40年代,美國社會(huì)學(xué)家史密特(Bernadine Schmidt)決定驗(yàn)證這個(gè)說法。他在芝加哥選定了254名來自社會(huì)底層的12到14歲少年做為研究對(duì)象。這些少年都被認(rèn)為低能,平均智商只有52。史密特對(duì)這些少年進(jìn)行了三年的強(qiáng)化訓(xùn)練,包括培養(yǎng)他們良好的學(xué)習(xí)習(xí)慣、生活作風(fēng)、學(xué)術(shù)基本技能等。三年后重新對(duì)他們進(jìn)行智商測(cè)試,發(fā)現(xiàn)他們的平均智商增加到 72,整整長了20分。五年后,史密特對(duì)他們?cè)俅巫隽藴y(cè)試,發(fā)現(xiàn)其平均智商繼續(xù)增加,達(dá)到了89,進(jìn)入了正常人范圍,而且有四分之一的人的智商增長在50 分以上。這個(gè)實(shí)驗(yàn)已說明了智商的高低并不是不可改變的,也就不可能完全由遺傳因素決定,而與后天的教育有關(guān)。
道尼:To the degree that IQ (as measured) turns out to be a highly plastic number, one cannot claim that it is inherited to any significant degree. Perhaps the most telling demonstration of the plasticity of IQ came in 1946 when Bernadine Schmidt, a young social scientist from Chicago, published a classic study in the journal Psychological Monographs. Schmidt's article, an unprecedented 144 pages long, described changes in the social, cultural, and intellectual behavior of 254 children of ages between twelve to fourteen. The children, who all came from disadvantaged or dysfunctional homes in the Chicago area, had all been classified as “feebleminded.” Their average IQ was 52, as compared with a nationwide average of about 100.
Schmidt conducted an intensive three-year training program that involved personal behavior, fundamental academic skills, manipulative arts, and good study habits. At the end of the period the students were tested again and proved to have an average IQ of 72, a full 20-point increase. Five years later, Schmidt tested her subjects again and found the average had increased to 89 with one-quarter of the students having gained more than 50 points. (42-43 頁)
史密特的論文長達(dá)144頁,但方舟子的280字段落卻與道尼的不到二百單詞的兩段總結(jié)完全相同。除了是“照譯”這個(gè)解釋之外,還能有其他解釋嗎?
那么,為什么說這個(gè)例子是錯(cuò)誤的呢?原來,史密特的論文發(fā)表于1946年,但由于結(jié)果太過怪異,發(fā)表之后就受到教育學(xué)界和心理學(xué)界專家的普遍懷疑。到了1948年,伊利諾伊大學(xué)教授科克(Samuel A. Kirk)發(fā)表文章,證明這是一起學(xué)術(shù)騙局。第一,根據(jù)芝加哥1937-1940年接受特殊教育學(xué)生的原始檔案,他們的平均智商是69,一半以上的學(xué)生智商高于69,智商低于50的總共才178人,占學(xué)生總數(shù)的2%左右。可是,史密特學(xué)生的平均智商為52,并且沒有一個(gè)人的智商超過69。那么,這254名學(xué)生是怎么湊起來的呢?第二,科克發(fā)現(xiàn),史密特教授的三個(gè)班級(jí)學(xué)生的初始智商分別為64,69,69,而不是她所說的52。第三,科克找不到史密特曾經(jīng)擔(dān)任過這三個(gè)班級(jí)“主教師”的任何證據(jù)。(見:KIRK, S. A. An evaluation of the study by Bernardine G. Schmidt entitled, Changes in personal, social, and intellectual behavior of children originally classified as feebleminded. Psychol Bull. 1948 Jul;45:321-333. )
顯然,古爾德知道上述事實(shí),所以他的書一直沒有引用史密特的這個(gè)例子。而數(shù)學(xué)家道尼卻懵懵懂懂地把這個(gè)例子拿了過來當(dāng)證據(jù)。結(jié)果,他的這本篇文章被人嘲笑為“外行”(inexperience)。(Sherman, M. Trials of Errors. American Scientist. 1998, March/April. 見:http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/trials-of-errors)。可嘆方舟子這位科普作家、打假斗士,卻把半個(gè)世紀(jì)前美國的學(xué)術(shù)造假材料當(dāng)成了真理,“普及”給了中國大眾。
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問題的性質(zhì):創(chuàng)作、翻譯、編譯、還是抄襲?
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撰寫科普文章,一般可以分為創(chuàng)作、翻譯、編譯幾種方式。由于科普寫作主要是介紹前人創(chuàng)造出來的知識(shí),參考前人的文獻(xiàn)不僅是不可避免的,而且是必須的。方舟子先生曾說,“我以前一再強(qiáng)調(diào),科普著作應(yīng)該由專家撰寫,因?yàn)橹挥袑<也趴赡芫哂斜匾膶W(xué)科知識(shí),并能閱讀原始論文,根據(jù)第一手的材料寫作。”(見其《虛妄的“人體革命”》,《中華讀書報(bào)》2000年11月1日)。顯然,方舟子先生如果真的像他自己所說的那樣進(jìn)行科普寫作,其文章應(yīng)該算是創(chuàng)作。但僅從《“智商”的誤區(qū)》來看,方舟子先生根本就不“具有必要的學(xué)科知識(shí)”,并且,他也根本就沒有“閱讀原始論文”。所以說,方舟子的這篇文章,即使不是照譯別人的文章,也不能算是創(chuàng)作。
根據(jù)外文文章進(jìn)行寫作,可以分為翻譯和編譯兩種。據(jù)《現(xiàn)代漢語詞典》的解釋,翻譯的意思是“把一種語言文字的意思用另一種語言文字表達(dá)出來”,編譯的意思是“編輯和翻譯”。一般說來,要確定某篇文章到底屬于翻譯稿還是編譯稿,不僅要看其中某段話、某句話的意思是不是來自另一種語言文字的某篇文章,而且還要分析這段話、這句話的語言結(jié)構(gòu)和特點(diǎn)與相應(yīng)的外文文章是否相似。根據(jù)上面的比較,《“智商”的誤區(qū)》的很多段落都是在逐字逐句翻譯古爾德、道尼的文章。而通觀全文,方舟子的文章結(jié)構(gòu)、觀點(diǎn),甚至夾敘夾議的方式都與這兩本書極為相似。因此,方舟子的這篇文章只能定性為翻譯。
根據(jù)中外著作權(quán)法,翻譯別人的作品,不論是用于什么目的,都首先要得到原著作權(quán)擁有者的授權(quán)。不僅如此,翻譯作品還必須給出原作者的姓名、原作的名稱等信息,并且注明這是翻譯作品。古爾德和道尼的書,都有“版權(quán)聲明”。道尼的書的版權(quán)聲明特別說,翻譯這本書必須得到版權(quán)所有人的許可。沒有得到許可的翻譯屬于違法行為。(Reproduction or transmission of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.)雖然我們無法得知方舟子先生翻譯這兩篇文章是否得到了原作者的授權(quán),但是,我們確實(shí)知道,他在文章中沒有透露原作者的半點(diǎn)信息,并且把這篇文章當(dāng)作了自己的作品一再發(fā)表。所以,我們可以肯定,方舟子的這篇作品不是合法的翻譯作品。
根據(jù)國家版權(quán)局版權(quán)管理司的定義,“將他人作品或者作品的片段竊為己有發(fā)表”就是抄襲行為。(國家版權(quán)局版權(quán)管理司《權(quán)司【1999】第6 號(hào)》,見:《百度百科》“抄襲”條)。不僅如此,方舟子先生本人也這么認(rèn)為。2010 年3 月22 日,方舟子在新語絲讀書論壇上說:
“‘成段的引文獻(xiàn)’也算抄襲,大概是松鼠會(huì)的獨(dú)創(chuàng);‘直接是英語文章翻過來的’卻公認(rèn)是抄襲。我被人稱為‘學(xué)術(shù)打假人士’,整天揭發(fā)別人抄襲,如果自己也干抄襲的勾當(dāng),這樣的‘人’是該被分到最卑劣的一群里頭去的。”(見:http://www.xys.org/forum/db/6/133/167.html)
這樣一來,一個(gè)不可避免的結(jié)論就是:方舟子的《“智商”的誤區(qū)》是一篇跨國界、跨語言、侵犯他人版權(quán)的全面抄襲之作。
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附錄:中英文對(duì)照
注:《“智商”的誤區(qū)》全文照錄。為了方便比較,沒有保持原有格式。疑似來自英文之處,將英文列出。英文來自兩本書,Gould指古爾德的The Mismeasure of Man;Dewdney指道尼的Yes, we have no neutrons。每段英文末尾的頁碼為該段文字在書中的位置。【】之中是筆者的注解和評(píng)論。
《“智商”的誤區(qū)》
方舟子
許多生物學(xué)家都會(huì)同意,人并不是地球上唯一的智能生物。類人猿和海豚也有一定的智能,不過與人類的智能相比,其實(shí)是微不足道的。我們也找不到有其他的生物像人類一樣,智力在生活中占了主宰地位。在進(jìn)入文明社會(huì)以后,人類的競爭更多地表現(xiàn)為斗智而非斗勇。白癡恐怕是最嚴(yán)重的殘疾。既然智力對(duì)人類生活是如此重要,研究其高低強(qiáng)弱就成了一個(gè)令人感興趣的問題。我們很容易區(qū)分白癡和正常人。但是要區(qū)分正常人的智力高低,卻不是容易的事。聰明和愚蠢只是定性的判斷,而且并非固定不變。有沒有可能定量地測(cè)定一個(gè)人天生的智力?在大腦被確定為思維器官之后,許多研究者就試圖通過測(cè)量人腦的大小、形狀判定智力的高低。這在一定程度上并非沒有道理。人和類人猿的智力區(qū)別,很大程度上就是由于腦容量的懸殊。人類的進(jìn)化史,也經(jīng)常被描述為腦容量不斷增加的歷史。但是腦容量的大小,是否也能夠適用于現(xiàn)代人的內(nèi)部?直至19世紀(jì)末,仍有一些科學(xué)家對(duì)此堅(jiān)信不疑。
其中最著名的大概是法國解剖學(xué)家、人類學(xué)家保羅·白洛嘉(Paul Broca)。他對(duì)人腦研究有重要貢獻(xiàn),發(fā)現(xiàn)了人腦的語言運(yùn)動(dòng)中樞,被稱為“白洛嘉中樞”。他認(rèn)為人的智力越高,大腦越大。另一位法國人、心理學(xué)家阿弗雷德·比納(Alfred Binet)起初也接受這種見解,并決定通過測(cè)量證明之。
Dewdney:Years earlier, he [指比納] had followed with fascination the craniometric studies of another famous countryman, Paul Broca (after whom Broca’s Area of the human brain is named), who claimed that more intelligent people had larger heads. (29頁)。
從1898年到 1900年,比納對(duì)幾所小學(xué)做了調(diào)查。他先讓教師選出一個(gè)班級(jí)中最聰明的和最笨的學(xué)生,然后用白洛嘉建議的方法測(cè)量這些學(xué)生的腦袋大小。
Gould:Binet went to various schools, making Broca's recommended measurements on the heads of pupils designated by teachers as their smartest and stupidest. (176頁)
在這項(xiàng)研究結(jié)束的時(shí)候,比納不得不改變了看法。
Gould:By the end of this effort, he was no longer so sure. (176頁)
聰明學(xué)生的平均腦袋大小僅僅比笨學(xué)生的大了大約一毫米,可以忽略不計(jì),而且可能是由于聰明學(xué)生的平均身高比笨學(xué)生略高的結(jié)果。
Gould:Binet found his differences, but they were much too small to matter and might only record the greater average height of better pupils (1.401 vs. 1.378 meters). Most measures did favor the better students, but the average difference between good and poor amounted to a mere millimeter — "extremement petite" as Binet wrote. (177頁)
另外,腦袋大小在學(xué)生中差異很大,腦袋最大的和腦袋最小的,都屬于笨學(xué)生。
Gould:The differences were too small, and Binet also found that poor students varied more than their smarter counterparts. Thus, although the smallest value usually belonged to a poor pupil, the highest often did as well. (177頁)
比納還發(fā)現(xiàn)了腦袋測(cè)量的結(jié)果很容易受測(cè)量者的偏向的影響,即在認(rèn)定被測(cè)量者是聰明的時(shí)測(cè)量結(jié)果會(huì)下意識(shí)地偏大,反之則偏小,這種誤差能達(dá)到三毫米,超過了聰明學(xué)生和笨學(xué)生的平均差異。
Gould:To make matters worse, some measures usually judged crucial in the assessment of mental worth favored the poorer pupils—for anteroposterior diameter of the skull, poorer students exceeded their smarter colleagues by 3.0 mm. (177頁)
【注:方舟子此處屬于誤譯或者故意篡改作者原意。古爾德此處是說比納測(cè)量學(xué)生的前額大小,發(fā)現(xiàn)差生比好生大三毫米。接下來,古爾德說比納發(fā)現(xiàn)測(cè)量者記錄測(cè)量結(jié)果會(huì)受到主觀意識(shí)的影響。
Binet also fueled his own doubts with an extraordinary study of his own suggestibility, an experiment in the primary theme of this book—the tenacity of unconscious bias and the surprising malleability of "objective," quantitative data in the interest of a preconceived idea. "I feared," Binet wrote (1900, p. 323), "that in making measurements on heads with the intention of finding a difference in volume between an intelligent and a less intelligent head, I would be led to increase, unconsciously and in good faith, the cephalic volume of intelligent heads and to decrease that of unintelligent heads." He recognized the greater danger lurking when biases are submerged and a scientist believes in his own objectivity (1900, p. 324): "Suggestibility . . . works less on an act of which we have full consciousness, than on a half-conscious act — and this is precisely its danger." (177頁)。
方舟子沒有“翻譯”這段話,而是把它的意思與前一段話混到了一起。】
這三個(gè)結(jié)果都說明了測(cè)量腦袋大小不是一種測(cè)定智力的可靠辦法。【注:這段話屬于方舟子的“原創(chuàng)”。】
在1904年,比納被法國教育部要求研究一種辦法鑒定那些學(xué)習(xí)能力有問題、需要特別輔導(dǎo)的小學(xué)生。或者說,要找出一種鑒定學(xué)生智力高低的辦法。
Gould:In 1904 Binet was commissioned by the minister of public education to perform a study for a specific, practical purpose: to develop techniques for identifying those children whose lack of success in normal classrooms suggested the need for some form of special education. (179頁)
這時(shí)候,比納已放棄了從大腦形態(tài)鑒定智力的努力,而改用測(cè)試辦法。
Gould:When Binet returned to the measurement of intelligence in 1904, he remembered his previous frustration and switched to other techniques. He abandoned what he called the "medical" approaches of craniometry and the search for Lombroso's anatomical stigmata, and decided instead on "psychological" methods. (178-179頁)
他發(fā)明了一套與功課的內(nèi)容沒有關(guān)系,只測(cè)試學(xué)生的推理能力的試卷。
Dewdney:He devised a test that resembled an examination but which did not address scholastic questions. Instead, the questions on this test reflected a student's ability to reason about simple things such as coins, faces, and other everyday object. (30頁)。
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到1911年比納去世時(shí),他共發(fā)表了三種智力測(cè)試的版本。
Gould:Binet published three versions of the scale before his death in 1911. (179頁)
1905年發(fā)表的第一版只是把測(cè)試問題按從易到難排列。在1908年發(fā)表的第二版中,比納把這些問題按“心理年齡”排列。
Dewdney:By 1905 Binet had completed the first version of his test, in which he arranged the tasks in order of difficulty. In the second version of his test, completed in 1908, Binet rearranged the questions in order of "mental age”. (30頁)
他設(shè)想,對(duì)每一個(gè)問題,智力正常的小孩要能夠回答的話,最少要有多少歲,這個(gè)年齡被當(dāng)做“心理年齡”。
Dewdney:For each question, he reasoned, there would be a minimum age at which a normal or average child might reasonably be expected to answer it correctly. (30頁)
受測(cè)試者從為最小的心理年齡設(shè)計(jì)的問題開始測(cè)試,難度逐漸增加,與受測(cè)試者所能回答的最后問題相關(guān)的心理年齡就是這個(gè)受測(cè)試者的心理年齡。受測(cè)試者的心理年齡減去其實(shí)際年齡,即是其智力水平。
Gould:A child began the Binet test with tasks for the youngest age and proceeded in sequence until he could no longer complete the tasks. The age associated with the last tasks he could perform became his "mental age," and his general intellectual level was calculated by subtracting this mental age from his true chronological age.(179-180頁)
如果心理年齡低于實(shí)際年齡,說明未達(dá)到同齡人的學(xué)習(xí)能力水平,那就需要特別輔導(dǎo)。
Gould:Children whose mental ages were sufficiently behind their chronological ages could then be identified for special educational programs, (180頁)
在 1912年,德國心理學(xué)家威廉·斯登(William Stern)認(rèn)為,將心理年齡除以實(shí)際年齡,更能準(zhǔn)確地反映智力水平,“智商”(IQ)由此誕生。
Gould:In 1912 the German psychologist W. Stern argued that mental age should be divided by chronological age, not subtracted from it, and the intelligence quotient, or IQ, was born. (180頁)
但是比納本人很清楚,他發(fā)明的這套測(cè)試,并不是真正在測(cè)量智力,“因?yàn)橹橇Φ暮脡氖遣荒墀B加的,因此不能像測(cè)量線性表面那樣地測(cè)量。”
Dewdney:As if aware of how his test might be later abused, Binet gave specific warnings about the dangers of misuse: "The scale, properly speaking, does not permit the measure of the intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured.” (31頁)
換言之,智力是一種極其復(fù)雜的、多樣化的現(xiàn)象,不能簡單地以一個(gè)數(shù)字來表示。而且,比納也很清楚,這套測(cè)試所設(shè)定的所謂“心理年齡”,只是許多測(cè)試者的平均結(jié)果,并不代表一個(gè)真正的實(shí)在。
Gould:Moreover, the number is only an average of many performances, not an entity unto itself. Intelligence, Binet reminds us, is not a single, scalable thing like height. (181頁)
在去世的那一年,他警告說:如果根據(jù)測(cè)試結(jié)果說一個(gè)八歲小孩有七歲或九歲的智力,那只是一種簡單化的、主觀的說法,容易引起誤解,導(dǎo)致其智力測(cè)試是真正在測(cè)量智力的幻覺。
Gould:"We feel it necessary to insist on this fact," Binet ( 1911 ) cautions, "because later, for the sake of simplicity of statement, we will speak of a child of 8 years having the intelligence of a child of 7 or 9 years; these expressions, if accepted arbitrarily, may give place to illusions." (181頁)
總之,比納測(cè)試只是一種實(shí)用性的測(cè)試,目的是為了發(fā)現(xiàn)學(xué)習(xí)能力有問題的兒童,并不是真正在測(cè)量智力,也不用于對(duì)正常兒童劃分智力等級(jí)。
Gould:Not only did Binet decline to label IQ as inborn intelligence; he also refused to regard it as a general device for ranking all pupils according to mental worth. He devised his scale only for the limited purpose of his commission by the ministry of education: as a practical guide for identifying children whose poor performance indicated a need for special education — those who we would today call learning disabled or mildly retarded. (182頁)
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那些被發(fā)現(xiàn)學(xué)習(xí)能力有問題的兒童,也不一定是天生如此、不可改變,通過特殊的訓(xùn)練有可能提高其能力。
Gould:But of one thing Binet was sure: whatever the cause of poor performance in school, the aim of his scale was to identify in order to help and improve, not to label in order to limit. Some children might be innately incapable of normal achievement, but all could improve with special help. (182頁)
比納所擔(dān)心的,恰恰在美國出現(xiàn)。在1910年,一個(gè)叫戈達(dá)德(H. H. Goddard)的美國心理學(xué)家將比納測(cè)試譯成英文,引進(jìn)美國,但為它找到了一個(gè)全新的、經(jīng)久不衰的用途。
Gould:Goddard was the first popularizer of the Binet scale in America. He translated Binet's articles into English, applied his tests, and agitated for their general use. (189頁)
在當(dāng)時(shí),心理學(xué)上把精神發(fā)育遲滯分成兩種:心理年齡不到三歲,不具有完備的語言能力的被稱為白癡,心理年齡在三歲到七歲之間,有語言能力但沒有閱讀、書寫能力的被稱為癡愚。
Dewdney:In Goddard's time, psychologists defined "idiots" as those who never developed full speech and could barely progress beyond the general competence of a three year-old. The next higher classification, "imbeciles," could speak well enough but seemed incapable of learning to read or write. An imbecile, by definition, had a mental age of somewhere between three and seven years. (32 頁)
戈達(dá)德認(rèn)為,在癡愚和正常人之間,還應(yīng)該存在一個(gè)心理年齡在八到十二歲的等級(jí),他稱之為愚魯。愚魯?shù)娜四軌驅(qū)W會(huì)閱讀、書寫,但是其能力永遠(yuǎn)達(dá)不到正常人的水平。
Dewdney:To bring the taxonomy of mental retardation up to date, Goddard coined the word "moron.” One level above imbeciles, morons occupied a gray area between idiots and imbeciles on the one hand, and fully competent people the other. Morons might learn to read and write, but their skills would always be somewhat marginal. (32 頁)
在戈達(dá)德看來,愚魯對(duì)社會(huì)的危害更大,許多犯罪分子,絕大多數(shù)酗酒者和妓女,甚至不適應(yīng)社會(huì)的人,全都是愚魯者。
Gould:Many criminals, most alcoholics and prostitutes, and even the "ne'er do wells" who simply don't fit in, are morons: "We know what feeble-mindedness is, and we have come to suspect all persons who are incapable of adapting themselves to their environment and living up to the conventions of society or acting sensibly, of being feeble-minded". (191頁)
我們很容易識(shí)別白癡和癡愚,他們一般沒有生殖能力或無生殖的興趣,有興趣的話也難以有機(jī)會(huì),因此其劣質(zhì)基因難以遺傳。
Gould:The idiot is not our greatest problem. He is indeed loathsome. . . .Nevertheless, he lives his life and is done. He does not continue the race with a line of children like himself. (192頁)
但是愚魯在表面上難以與正常人區(qū)別開來,他們有正常的生殖能力,甚至生殖力旺盛,其劣質(zhì)基因?qū)?huì)遺傳下去、擴(kuò)散開去。如何鑒別愚魯者并防止其生殖,是當(dāng)時(shí)“優(yōu)生學(xué)”運(yùn)動(dòng)的主要目標(biāo)。戈達(dá)德認(rèn)為,比納測(cè)試就是鑒定愚魯者的一個(gè)好辦法。
Dewdney:Binet’s new tests, he discovered, were just the thing to detect morons. The eugenics movement, started by the statistician Francis Galton in England two decades earlier, had taken root in America. There was much concern in some quarters that if the feebleminded and moronic were allowed to breed and produce children, the population as a whole would become polluted with these undesirable genes. (32頁)
這完全背叛了比納的初衷。戈達(dá)德認(rèn)為比納測(cè)試是真正地測(cè)試智力,而且是先天的、遺傳而來的、不可改變的智力。
Gould:Binet refused to define his scores as "intelligence," and wished to identify in order to help. Goddard regarded the scores as measures of a single, innate entity. (189頁)
今天我們已認(rèn)識(shí)到,有許多因素可以導(dǎo)致精神發(fā)育遲滯,例如孕期生病、濫用藥物,胎兒、嬰兒營養(yǎng)不良,大腦受到外傷,等等,當(dāng)然也有的是遺傳病。
Gould:Consider some of the potential causes: inherited patterns of function, genetic pathologies arising accidentally and not passed in family lines, congenital brain damage caused by maternal illness during pregnancy, birth traumas, poor nutrition of fetuses and babies, a variety of environmental disadvantages in early and later life. (190頁)
人體的任何主要性狀,都是許多基因彼此相互作用、基因與環(huán)境相互作用以及偶然因素的影響的結(jié)果。
Gould:We now know that virtually every major feature of our body is built by the interaction of many genes with each other and with an external environment.(192頁)
然而,戈達(dá)德卻把所有的精神發(fā)育遲滯全都?xì)w為遺傳引起的。他甚至認(rèn)為智力就像孟德爾豌豆的顏色、性狀一樣,是由一對(duì)等位基因決定的,一個(gè)來自父親,一個(gè)來自母親。那些沒有正常的智力基因而只有與之等位的“隱性的”精神遲滯基因的,就會(huì)是愚魯、癡愚、白癡。那些只有一個(gè)正常的智力基因的,則是只適于干粗活的笨蛋。
Gould:But in these early days, many biologists naively assumed that all human traits would behave like the color, size, or wrinkling of Mendel's peas: they believed, in short, that even the most complex parts of a body might be built by single genes, and that variation in anatomy or behavior would record the different dominant and recessive forms of these genes. (192頁)
Dewdney:Goddard, after all, believing in “intelligence” as a single, fixed entity that could be measured more or less precisely. He also believed that it was passed on by a specific gene from each parent. Those who received no genes for intelligence would be morons, or worse. Those who received only one gene would be fit for “dull labor” but little else. (33頁)
如果智力障礙真的是由一個(gè)基因決定的,那么就有一個(gè)簡單的辦法將其消滅:禁止智力障礙者生育。
Gould:If mental deficiency is the effect of a single gene, the path to its eventual elimination lies evidently before us: do not allow such people to bear children: (193頁)
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如果愚魯者能夠?yàn)榱巳祟惖男腋N磥矶杂X地控制自己的性欲,那么我們還可以允許他們自由地生活。
Gould:If morons could control their own sexual urges and desist for the good of mankind, we might permit them to live freely among us. (193頁)
但是愚蠢必然導(dǎo)致不道德,愚魯者是不可能自覺地放棄自己的生殖權(quán)利的,因此必須采取強(qiáng)制措施。
Gould:But they cannot, because immorality and stupidity are inexorably linked. (193頁)
Gould:So that if we are absolutely to prevent a feeble-minded person from becoming a parent, something must be done other than merely prohibiting the marrying.(194頁)
戈達(dá)德并不反對(duì)對(duì)愚魯者實(shí)施絕育手術(shù),但是他認(rèn)為把他們像精神病人一樣關(guān)起來與社會(huì)隔離,是個(gè)更容易被接受的做法。
Gould:Goddard did not oppose sterilization, but he regarded it as impractical because traditional sensibilities of a society not yet wholly rational would prevent such widespread mayhem. Colonization in exemplary institutions like his own at Vineland, New Jersey, must be our preferred solution. (194頁)
同時(shí),美國做為一個(gè)移民國家,還面臨著一個(gè)外來的威脅:外國的愚魯者正蜂擁而來,必須把他們擋在國門之外。這顯然要比隔離美國本地的愚魯者更容易做到。
Gould:Preventing the immigration and propagation of morons (194頁)【注:這是一小節(jié)的標(biāo)題。】
在 1912年,戈達(dá)德及其助手到了紐約埃利斯島,用比納測(cè)試測(cè)定申請(qǐng)移民者的智力。
Gould:As a contribution to the second step, Goddard and his associates visited Ellis Island in 1912 "to observe conditions and offer any suggestions as to what might be done to secure a more thorough examination of immigrants for the purpose of detecting mental defectives”. (195頁)
結(jié)果令人吃驚:83%的猶太人,80%的匈牙利人,79%的意大利人和 87%的俄國人的心理年齡都低于十二歲,也即屬于低能。
Gould:Binet tests on the four groups led to an astounding result: 83 percent of the Jews, 80 percent of the Hungarians, 79 percent of the Italians, and 87 percent of the Russians were feeble-minded — that is, below age twelve on the Binet scale. (196頁)
難道這些民族的五分之四的人口居然都精神發(fā)育不全?連戈達(dá)德本人都不敢相信,對(duì)測(cè)試結(jié)果進(jìn)行了修正,使移民申請(qǐng)者中低能的比例降到了40%到50%。但是這個(gè)比例仍然高得離譜。
Gould:Goddard himself was flabbergasted: could anyone be made to believe that four-fifths of any nation were morons? …… Eventually, Goddard monkied about with the tests, tossed several out, and got his figures down to 40 to 50 percent, but still he was disturbed. (196頁)
原因本來不難設(shè)想,這些受測(cè)試者絕大多數(shù)是窮人,從未上過學(xué),有的甚至從未握過筆,一句英語不懂,在經(jīng)過長途海上顛簸之后,疲頓不堪,精神緊張,惶恐不安地立即接受智商測(cè)試,怎么能指望他們發(fā)揮正常水平?
Gould:Goddard's figures were even more absurd than he imagined for two reasons, one obvious, the other less so.…… For the evident reason, consider a group of frightened men and women who speak no English and who have just endured an oceanic voyage in steerage. Most are poor and have never gone to school; many have never held a pencil or pen in their hand. They march off the boat; one of Goddard's intuitive women takes them aside shortly thereafter, sits them down, hands them a pencil, and asks them to reproduce on paper a figure shown to them a moment ago, but now withdrawn from their sight. Could their failure be a result of testing conditions, of weakness, fear, or confusion, rather than of innate stupidity? (196頁)
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但是戈達(dá)德卻排除了這些環(huán)境因素,而把測(cè)試結(jié)果不佳歸于先天的愚蠢,認(rèn)定這些新移民的確有令人驚訝的低等智力,而愚魯者比例奇高的原因,是因?yàn)橐泼竦馁|(zhì)量在下降,外國高智商者傾向于留在本國,而低智商者傾向于移民美國。因此,嚴(yán)格把好移民關(guān)就成了當(dāng)務(wù)之急。戈達(dá)德非常自豪地報(bào)道說,在那些相信可以用智商測(cè)試檢測(cè)低能外國人的美國醫(yī)生的不懈努力下,在1913年,由于智力不健全而被驅(qū)逐的移民增加了350%,在1914年則比前五年的平均人數(shù)增加了570%。
Gould:Since environment, either European or immediate, could not explain such abject failure, Goddard stated: "We cannot escape the general conclusion that these immigrants were of surprisingly low intelligence" (1917, p. 251). The high proportion of morons still bothered Goddard, but he finally attributed it to the changing character of immigration: "It should be noted that the immigration of recent years is of a decidedly different character from the early immigration…We are now getting the poorest of each race” (1917, p.266). "The intelligence of the average 'third class' immigrant is low, perhaps of moron grade" (1917, p. 243). Perhaps, Goddard hoped out loud, things were better on the upper decks, but he did not test these wealthier customers. (197頁)
到了1928年,戈達(dá)德改變了看法,承認(rèn)那些比納測(cè)試的心理年齡低于十二歲者,只有一小部分是真正的低能,而即使是愚魯,也能通過教育和訓(xùn)練使他們過上正常的社會(huì)生活,而不必加以隔離。至此,戈達(dá)德的立場與比納的立場已沒有什么區(qū)別。
Gould:By 1928 Goddard had changed his mind and become a latterday supporter of the man whose work he had originally perverted, Alfred Binet. Goddard admitted, …… We now know, of course, that only a small percentage of the people who test 12 are actually feeble-minded…… (202頁)
Gould:Goddard concluded (1928, p. 225) in reversing the two bulwarks of his former system:
1. Feeble-mindedness (the moron) is not incurable [Goddard's italics].
2. The feeble-minded do not generally need to be segregated in institutions. (204頁)
但是在這時(shí)候,比納測(cè)試被做為測(cè)試天生智力的方法,早已在美國流傳開去。這得歸功于另一位心理學(xué)家、斯坦福大學(xué)教授路易斯·特曼(Lewis M. Terman)。
Gould:Goddard introduced Binet's scale to America, but Terman was the primary architect of its popularity. (205頁)
1911年比納測(cè)試的最后版本包括54道題,只測(cè)試到十六歲水平。特曼在1916年對(duì)比納測(cè)試做了擴(kuò)展,包括90道題,測(cè)試到“超級(jí)成人”水平。
Gould:Binet's last version of 1911 included fifty-four tasks, graded from prenursery to mid-teen-age years. Terman's first revision of 1916 extended the scale to "superior adults" and increased the-number of tasks to ninety. (205頁)
特曼將每個(gè)年齡的兒童平均得分設(shè)為100(即心理年齡等于實(shí)際年齡),允許有15分的偏差。
Gould:By careful juggling and elimination, Terman standardized the scale so that "average" children would score 100 at each age (mental age equal to chronological age). Terman also evened out the variation among children by establishing a standard deviation of 15 or 16 points at each chronological age. (207頁)
他把這個(gè)測(cè)試稱為斯坦福-比納測(cè)試。
Gould:Terman, by then a professor at Stanford University, gave his revision a name that has become part of our century's vocabulary—the Stanford-Binet, the standard for virtually all "IQ" tests that followed. (205頁)
和戈達(dá)德一樣,特曼認(rèn)為低能是社會(huì)敗壞的根源,“并非所有的犯罪分子都是低能者,但是所有的低能者都至少是可能的犯罪分子。誰都難以否認(rèn),每一個(gè)低能的婦女都是可能的妓女。道德判斷,就像商業(yè)判斷、社會(huì)判斷或其他任何高等層次的思維品質(zhì),是智力的功能。如果智力滯留在幼稚狀態(tài),道德不可能開花結(jié)果。”
Gould:Not all criminals are feeble-minded, but all feeble-minded persons are at least potential criminals. That every feeble-minded woman is a potential prostitute would hardly be disputed by anyone. Moral judgment, like business judgment, social judgment, or any other kind of higher thought process, is a function of intelligence. Morality cannot flower and fruit if intelligence remains infantile (1916, p. 11). (211頁)
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特曼認(rèn)為智商高低決定了在社會(huì)上的成功與否,一個(gè)理想的社會(huì)是根據(jù)每個(gè)人的智商進(jìn)行分工的社會(huì),智商低于 75只適合于干粗活,75-85只適于干半技術(shù)活,“智商高于85者當(dāng)理發(fā)師,可能是一種嚴(yán)重的浪費(fèi)”,而要在社會(huì)上成功,可能需要有115或120以上的智商。
Gould:Terman virtually closed professions of prestige and monetary reward to people with IQ below 100 (1919, p. 282), and argued that "substantial success" probably required an IQ above 115 or120. (211-212頁)
Gould:IQ of 75 or below should be the realm of unskilled labor, 75 to 85 "preeminently the range for semi-skilled labor." More specific judgments could also be made. "Anything above 85 IQ in the case of a barber probably represents so much dead waste" (1919, p. 288). (212頁)
因此特曼希望能測(cè)定社會(huì)上每個(gè)人的智商,由此有了另一個(gè)創(chuàng)新:使智力測(cè)試大眾化、商業(yè)化。比納測(cè)試必須由經(jīng)過訓(xùn)練的人員主持,每次只能對(duì)一個(gè)兒童進(jìn)行測(cè)試,因此不可能大規(guī)模地進(jìn)行。但是特曼卻希望每個(gè)人都接受斯坦福-比納測(cè)試,為測(cè)試提供了標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案,因此任何人都可以主持測(cè)試、評(píng)定結(jié)果。
Gould:Binet's tasks had to be administered by a trained tester working with one child at a time. They could not be used as instruments for general ranking. But Terman wished to test everybody, for he hoped to establish a gradation of innate ability that could sort all children into their proper stations in life:
What pupils shall be tested? The answer is, all. ……. Universal testing is fully warranted (1923, p. 22).(206-207頁)
Dewdney:Problems with the Binet scale and its application led Lewis M. Terman, an educational psychologist at Stanford University, to revise the test, producing by 1917 what we now call the Stanford - Binet scale. Terman extended the number of questions from 54 to 90. Many of the new questions were for "superior adults. While the Binet test had been administered orally by a trained tester, the new Stanford-Binet test was to be a written one. The new test, moreover, would hardly be confined to selected students. Terman already foresaw a universal IQ test: “What pupils shall be tested? The answer is All.” (33頁)
一個(gè)兒童在經(jīng)過五次30分鐘的測(cè)試后,就被測(cè)定了智商高低,該結(jié)果可能影響其一生。
Gould:Thirty minutes and five tests might mark a child for life, if schools adopted the following examination, advertised in Terman 1923, and constructed by a committee that included Thorndike, Yerkes, and Terman himself.(207頁)
智商測(cè)試很快成為了一個(gè)產(chǎn)值數(shù)百萬美元的大工業(yè),各種各樣的版本被發(fā)明、推銷,而所有這些版本都以斯坦福-比納測(cè)試為依據(jù)。斯坦福-比納測(cè)試成了以后所有智商測(cè)試的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),一直被使用到現(xiàn)在。
Gould:Testing soon became a multimillion-dollar industry; marketing companies dared not take a chance with tests not proven by their correlation with Terman's standard. (207頁)
Gould:……the Stanford-Binet became (and in many respects remains to this day) the primary criterion for judging a plethora of mass-marketed written tests that followed. (207頁)
但是從一開始,“智商”學(xué)派就在學(xué)術(shù)界遭到了批評(píng),這些批評(píng)至今也沒有平息,而智商學(xué)派幾十年來也未能充分地回應(yīng)這些批評(píng)。
Dewdney:For the foregoing reason and others as well, the IQ school has been under more or less continuous attack from the beginning. The concept of IQ has been criticized by psychologists, biologists, physicists, mathematicians, and philosophers of science. To counter these criticisms, the IQ school has cleverly drawn its intellectual wagons into a circle. (37頁)。
智商學(xué)派聲稱智力測(cè)試與文化背景、學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容無關(guān),測(cè)試的是抽象的推理能力。但是他們提供的某些問題和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案,顯然是在測(cè)試對(duì)一個(gè)特定的文化中的社會(huì)規(guī)范的理解程度。
例如在斯坦福-比納測(cè)試中,有一道題是:“我的鄰居來了三個(gè)不尋常的訪問者,先是一位醫(yī)生到他家,然后是一位律師,然后是一位牧師。你認(rèn)為那里發(fā)生了什么事?”特曼提供的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案是“死亡”:醫(yī)生做最后搶救和死亡鑒定,律師草擬遺囑,牧師接受臨終懺悔。顯然,一個(gè)不了解西方臨終習(xí)俗的人,很難做出正確的回答,將會(huì)被認(rèn)為 “愚蠢”。即使是在西方國家生活智力正常的人,也不一定會(huì)按標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案回答。特曼只對(duì)一名他稱為“有覺悟的年輕優(yōu)生學(xué)者”的男孩的非標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案破例接受(這名男孩回答說是“結(jié)婚”:醫(yī)生來查看未婚夫妻是否適合結(jié)婚,律師草擬婚約,牧師主持婚禮),但是對(duì)其他答案一概認(rèn)為是錯(cuò)誤的,最常見的錯(cuò)誤答案是“離婚后再婚”,至于其他雖然合理但是太簡單的答案像“聚餐”、“娛樂”都不被允許,過于復(fù)雜的、富有創(chuàng)造性和想象力的答案(比如“某人病危,在臨死前結(jié)婚和立遺囑”)也被認(rèn)為是不可接受的。
Gould:Terman also included this item from Binet's original: "My neighbor has been having queer visitors. First a doctor came to his house, then a lawyer, then a minister. What do you think happened there?" Terman permitted little latitude beyond "a death," though he did allow "a marriage" from a boy he described as "an enlightened young eugenist" who replied that the doctor came to see if the partners were fit, the lawyer to arrange, and the minister to tie the knot. He did not accept the combination "divorce and remarriage," though he reports that a colleague in Reno, Nevada, had found the response "very, very common." He also did not permit plausible but uncomplicated solutions (a dinner, or an entertainment), or such original responses as: "someone is dying and is getting married and making his will before he dies." (206頁)
難道創(chuàng)造性和想象力不被算是智力?這正是智商學(xué)派遭受到的批評(píng)中最致命的一點(diǎn):什么是智力?智力是極其復(fù)雜的現(xiàn)象,不論是從科學(xué)的角度還是從社會(huì)的角度,都沒有人能對(duì)智力下一個(gè)能被學(xué)術(shù)界公認(rèn)的、恰當(dāng)?shù)亩x,更沒有人能夠提出一個(gè)關(guān)于智力的理論解釋極其多樣的與智力有關(guān)的種種現(xiàn)象。
有些人有很強(qiáng)的分析、推理能力,卻缺乏想象力;有些人數(shù)學(xué)能力很差,但是語言能力很強(qiáng);有些人言語遲鈍,但是思維反應(yīng)敏捷;有些人學(xué)習(xí)能力不強(qiáng),但是卻善于處理社會(huì)關(guān)系……如何能夠客觀地判定這些具有不同的能力的人的智力高低?又如何能夠?qū)哂胸S富的內(nèi)容的智力做線性的數(shù)量排列?許多學(xué)者把智力定義為學(xué)習(xí)能力,但是學(xué)什么呢?數(shù)學(xué)、語言、圖像識(shí)別、音樂、繪畫、處理人際關(guān)系還是野外生存能力?智商測(cè)試以及當(dāng)代其他學(xué)習(xí)能力測(cè)試所測(cè)量的,只是數(shù)學(xué)、推理和語匯能力,這最多只能說是智力的一小部分。但是智商學(xué)派卻認(rèn)為智商測(cè)定的是正常人必有的普遍智力。
Dewdney:By a theory of intelligence, I mean a theory that defines intelligence as a quality that inheres to some degree in every compartment of human mental activity. At a minimum, such a theory would have to be capable of identifying intelligent behavior as observed in a variety of natural settings from social interactions to athletic performance to intellectual work. ……One might well add that some people seem to show more intelligence in one area than another. For example, some people are excellent at calculating social relationships, but are quite lost when it comes to weights and measures. Some people see analogies between things almost instantly, but seem unable to imagine new situations. (38頁)
在20世紀(jì)初,英國統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)家斯皮爾曼(Charles Spearman)為了分析智力測(cè)試的結(jié)果,發(fā)明了因子分析法。他發(fā)現(xiàn),人們?cè)诨卮鸩煌闹橇y(cè)試時(shí),其得分具有相關(guān)性,即在某一套智力測(cè)試得分高的人,在另一套智力測(cè)試中也傾向于得分高,反之亦然。這些不同的智力測(cè)試的結(jié)果是不是存在一個(gè)共同因子呢?他用因子分析法進(jìn)行分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)的確存在一個(gè)相關(guān)因子,他稱之為g,代表普遍智力。由于他已認(rèn)定人的智力具有天生的“普遍因素”,便認(rèn)為這個(gè)抽象的g真的是測(cè)量了普遍智力。
Dewdney:About the time that Binet was commissioned by the French Ministry of Education to compose his famous test, English statistician Charles Spearman invented factor analysis, a technique for teasing out underlying uniformities in large numbers of correlations. (34 頁)
Dewdney:When examining the data of IQ tests, Spearman was struck by the high degree of correlation between scores achieved by people who took two different tests. Was there some underlying factor common to the tests? To find out, he applied factor analysis and discovered that, indeed, there was. He called it g. Spearman meant this letter to stand for “general intelligence,” a perfect example of thingifying. (36頁)。
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但是我們知道,機(jī)理未明的相關(guān)性很可能是沒有意義的,由此而得的因子也不過是個(gè)抽象的、很可能同樣沒有具體意義的符號(hào),它可能反映的是環(huán)境因素(某些人在各種智力測(cè)試中得分高,是因?yàn)橛辛己玫臓I養(yǎng)、家庭、教育),可能反映的是遺傳因素(某些人在各種智力測(cè)試中得分高,是因?yàn)樗麄兲焐吐斆鳎赡芊从车氖黔h(huán)境因素和遺傳因素的共同作用,當(dāng)然可能什么也反映不了。
【注:古爾德和道尼在書中花費(fèi)了大量的篇幅討論相關(guān)分析的局限性,方舟子上面這段話就是根據(jù)它們“發(fā)揮”而來的。】
但是智商學(xué)派卻認(rèn)定他們測(cè)定的是受遺傳因素決定的、天生的、不可改變的普遍智力。在40年代,美國社會(huì)學(xué)家史密特(Bernadine Schmidt)決定驗(yàn)證這個(gè)說法。他在芝加哥選定了254名來自社會(huì)底層的12到14歲少年做為研究對(duì)象。這些少年都被認(rèn)為低能,平均智商只有52。史密特對(duì)這些少年進(jìn)行了三年的強(qiáng)化訓(xùn)練,包括培養(yǎng)他們良好的學(xué)習(xí)習(xí)慣、生活作風(fēng)、學(xué)術(shù)基本技能等。三年后重新對(duì)他們進(jìn)行智商測(cè)試,發(fā)現(xiàn)他們的平均智商增加到 72,整整長了20分。五年后,史密特對(duì)他們?cè)俅巫隽藴y(cè)試,發(fā)現(xiàn)其平均智商繼續(xù)增加,達(dá)到了89,進(jìn)入了正常人范圍,而且有四分之一的人的智商增長在50 分以上。這個(gè)實(shí)驗(yàn)已說明了智商的高低并不是不可改變的,也就不可能完全由遺傳因素決定,而與后天的教育有關(guān)。
Dewdney:To the degree that IQ (as measured) turns out to be a highly plastic number, one cannot claim that it is inherited to any significant degree. Perhaps the most telling demonstration of the plasticity of IQ came in 1946 when Bernadine Schmidt, a young social scientist from Chicago, published a classic study in the journal Psychological Monographs. Schmidt's article, an unprecedented 144 pages long, described changes in the social, cultural, and intellectual behavior of 254 children of ages between twelve to fourteen. The children, who all came from disadvantaged or dysfunctional homes in the Chicago area, had all been classified as “feebleminded.” Their average IQ was 52, as compared with a nationwide average of about 100.
Dewdney:Schmidt conducted an intensive three-year training program that involved personal behavior, fundamental academic skills, manipulative arts, and good study habits. At the end of the period the students were tested again and proved to have an average IQ of 72, a full 20-point increase. Five years later, Schmidt tested her subjects again and found the average had increased to 89 with one-quarter of the students having gained more than 50 points. (42-43 頁)
那么智商在多大程度上是與遺傳因素有關(guān)的呢?在遺傳學(xué)上,用遺傳率來表示某項(xiàng)性狀受遺傳影響的程度。這是一個(gè)在0和1之間的數(shù)字。如果不同個(gè)體的性狀差異完全是由于基因差異引起的,遺傳率為1;如果完全是由環(huán)境因素導(dǎo)致的,則遺傳率為0。研究孿生子的性狀異同,是確定遺傳率的一個(gè)好辦法。一對(duì)同卵孿生子的基因組是完全相同的,如果他們從小被分開、在不同的家庭長大,那么他們某個(gè)性狀的相似程度,就被認(rèn)為代表著該性狀受基因影響的程度。30多項(xiàng)孿生子研究(合計(jì)包括一萬多對(duì)孿生子)的結(jié)果表明,智商的遺傳率大約是0.5。但是這樣得到的遺傳率事實(shí)上指的是先天因素,而先天因素并不完全是由基因決定的,出生前母親體內(nèi)環(huán)境也會(huì)對(duì)一個(gè)人的先天狀況有重要影響。由于孿生子是同時(shí)在同一個(gè)子宮發(fā)育的,他們共同的先天因素并不僅僅包括相同的基因的影響,還包括相同的母體環(huán)境。在考慮了孕期母體環(huán)境因素后,智商的遺傳率只有大約 0.34。
【注:這段話是方舟子根據(jù)1997年7月31日Nature上的一篇文章 “改編”的。只不過是,根據(jù)這篇文章,他們的統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果是根據(jù)二百多項(xiàng)研究,總?cè)藬?shù)超過五萬。方舟子所說的“30多項(xiàng)孿生子研究(合計(jì)包括一萬多對(duì)孿生子)”不知來自何處。見:Devlin B, Daniels M, Roeder K. The heritability of IQ. Nature. 1997 Jul 31;388:468-71.】
可見環(huán)境和隨機(jī)因素對(duì)智商高低的影響其實(shí)是更加重要的。即使是受遺傳因素影響的那部分,也只是個(gè)統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果,究竟有多少基因、什么樣的基因參與其中,作用機(jī)理如何,我們都一無所知。近來英國和美國聯(lián)合開展了一項(xiàng)研究,試圖尋找影響智商的基因。研究者將數(shù)百名實(shí)驗(yàn)對(duì)象按其智商高、中、低分成幾組,并提取其 DNA加以分析。研究者選定了大約90種與神經(jīng)功能有關(guān)的基因加以比較,看其中是否有與智商差異有關(guān)的。至今他們還沒有找到任何與智商高低相關(guān)的基因。如果有一天他們發(fā)現(xiàn)了某個(gè)基因的差異與智商的高低相關(guān),我們是否可以說這就是智商基因甚至是智力基因呢?不能。
【注:這段話可能是在講述英國國王學(xué)院的科學(xué)家Robert Plomin 和美國科羅拉多大學(xué)科學(xué)家John C. DeFries的工作。見: Ghosh, P. Genius of genes. BBC News, 8 August, 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/850358.stm】
打一個(gè)比方,如果蓄電池壞了,就能影響汽車發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的起動(dòng),但是我們并不能說蓄電池是發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的“基因”,它甚至算不上是發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的一部分。同樣,任何能影響神經(jīng)元的構(gòu)造、功能、代謝和營養(yǎng)的基因,都有可能影響人的智力活動(dòng),并成為影響智商的基因。有的這類基因與智力活動(dòng)并無直接的關(guān)系。例如,有極少數(shù)人,大約在三、四十歲就會(huì)得阿茲海默癥(老年癡呆癥),他們?nèi)绻鲋巧虦y(cè)驗(yàn),無疑得分會(huì)很低。他們得病的原因,是某個(gè)基因(例如app基因)發(fā)生突變,生產(chǎn)異常的淀粉狀蛋白。這些淀粉狀蛋白在大腦中沉積下來,就會(huì)抑制周圍的神經(jīng)元的功能,從而導(dǎo)致癡呆癥。顯然,任何能夠引起整個(gè)神經(jīng)元功能失常或死亡的基因都能導(dǎo)致智力缺陷,但是這些基因本身的正常功能不太可能與智力活動(dòng)有任何的關(guān)系。
要而言之,智力是一種極其復(fù)雜的、多樣的現(xiàn)象,不可能做定量的線性測(cè)量。并不存在一種可以比較正常人的智力高低的“普遍智力”。所謂智商測(cè)試,測(cè)量的不過是數(shù)學(xué)、推理、語匯方面的學(xué)習(xí)能力。智商測(cè)試在學(xué)校教育中有其應(yīng)用價(jià)值,但不宜夸大其作用,更不能產(chǎn)生它是在測(cè)量智力的誤解。智商的高低并非真正反映智力的高低。智商并不是完全由遺傳因素決定、不可改變的,環(huán)境因素的影響可能更為重要。影響智力的遺傳因素是極其復(fù)雜、多樣的。遺傳性的智力遲滯往往是由于與智力活動(dòng)沒有關(guān)聯(lián)的基因突變導(dǎo)致的。任何能夠影響神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的活動(dòng)的基因都有可能影響智力活動(dòng)。找到某個(gè)特定的“智力基因”的可能性,可以說為零。
(作者葛莘,現(xiàn)定居美國南卡羅萊納州哥倫比亞市,擁有博士學(xué)位)
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