“打假”名人方舟子被曝剽竊他人著作
深圳商報記者 鄭健陽
近日,北京一自稱“以科學和事實打方舟子的假”的網友“打假巡撫”在新浪微博曝光方舟子抄襲剽竊他人著作。昨日,“打假巡撫”再次于微博曝光:光明網正式發表方舟子抄襲的事情。此事立即在微博上炸開了鍋,短短幾個小時,該條微博被轉發226次,評論上百條。
根據“打假巡撫”提供的網頁鏈接,記者打開光明網,該報道于2011年1月26日發表,以《創作、翻譯、編譯、還是抄襲?——評方舟子的〈“智商”的誤區〉》為題,原稿刊登來自美國的華人學者葛莘博士來稿。該報道主要討論方舟子發表于2002年第4期《牛頓-科學雜志》上的《“智商”的誤區》一文。
葛莘博士于幾年前閱讀這篇文章時,即有一種似曾相識的感覺。近日“發現了其中的奧秘”。葛莘博士提到,原來這篇文章基本上是根據兩本英文書翻譯而成。這兩本書一本是已故哈佛大學教授、著名科學史學者古爾德寫的《誤測人類》,另一本是加拿大西安大略大學數學教授道尼寫的《對,我們沒有中子》,這兩本書各有一章專門講述“智商”的發展史。古爾德的書屬于學術著術,篇幅比較大,敘述詳細,論證嚴密,引用文字也比較多。而道尼的書,則屬于反“偽科學”的科普書,文字淺顯,篇幅也比較簡短。
“而方舟子的《“智商”的誤區》,實際上就是以道尼的文章為骨架,然后根據古爾德的文章來充實內容寫成的。”葛莘博士對三者的文章進行詳細比較,總結出三者的結構、觀點、文字都很相似或相同,甚至就連出現的錯誤都相同。這問題的性質是創作、翻譯、編譯還是抄襲呢?葛莘博士說,撰寫科普文章,一般可以分為創作、翻譯、編譯幾種方式,方舟子根本就不“具有必要的學科知識”,他也根本就沒有“閱讀原始論文”,方舟子的這篇文章,即使不是照譯別人的文章,也不能算是創作。方舟子在文章中沒有透露原作者的半點信息,并且把這篇文章當作了自己的作品一再發表,所以方舟子的這篇作品不是合法的翻譯作品。 葛莘博士總結道,方舟子的《“智商”的誤區》是一篇跨國界、跨語言、侵犯他人版權的全面抄襲之作。
此外,“打假巡撫”還在微博上發布方舟子一系列涉嫌抄襲造假案例匯總。“打假巡撫”的微博引起眾網友的圍觀。大多網友驚訝于以打假著稱的方舟子居然也被曝抄襲作假,有網友表示“極其震驚”。
有網友認為,方舟子是一位“偽道德高佬”,“打假也終于輪到方舟子”,以“科學和事實打方舟子的假”。有網友認為,方舟子應該在其自身專業領域內發揮一些科普努力,而不應以科普的名義勉為其難廣泛涉獵。有網友評論說:“方舟子有些不懂的東西,他也打,造成的危害是很大的,比如打中醫,這是一個十分愚昧的人做的事兒;比如打宗教,這更愚昧,你講科學,人家是宗教,宗教跟科學本身就兩碼事兒。”
不過,對于方舟子涉嫌抄襲作假的披露,也有部分網友對此表示質疑。有網友提出,如何界定抄襲以及誰來界定抄襲都是值得認真討論的話題。有網友質疑,葛莘博士為何會遠在美國而特意關心方舟子的文章,這其中或許有內情。
記者瀏覽網友的評論,大多網友還是希望能夠盡快查出真相,并期待方舟子能對此作出回應。直至昨晚記者截稿時,方舟子仍未在其微博上對此事作出回應。
(原文章鏈接:http://szsb.sznews.com/html/2011-02/25/content_1454002.htm)
附:http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/view/201102/217116.html
創作、翻譯、編譯、還是抄襲?(上)
——評方舟子的《“智商”的誤區》
葛莘(亦明)
2011-01-26光明網
[光明網編者按]我們收到了來自美國的華人學者葛莘博士來稿,本網作為關注國內外知識版權保護問題的政府重點新聞網站,認為葛莘博士文中提到的問題是當前國內外媒體關注的一個存在不同觀點的焦點問題。為了給中國學術界、知識界以及公眾以實證個案為基礎,提供多角度、多視野的觀點,現把此篇國外學者的文章發表。必須說明:我們發表此文并不表示光明網完全認同作者觀點,只是作為學術爭鳴之用,作者來稿也聲明文責自負。
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方舟子先生是著名科普作家,撰寫了大量科普文章,在國內的影響很大。令人驚異的是,方先生的科普范圍十分廣泛,從生物學到物理學,從西方科學哲學到中國傳統醫學,他都曾經涉足。更加讓人不解的是,方先生的文章幾乎從來不提及自己的參考文獻。因此,一個十分明顯的問題就是,方先生的知識到底是從哪里來的?
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《牛頓-科學雜志》2002年第4期發表了方先生的《“智商”的誤區》一文。這篇文章后來又在《青年科學》(2003年第1期)、《教師博覽》(2003年第5期)、《科技文萃》(2004年第3期)上發表。2007年,方舟子的文集《方舟子破解世界之謎》出版,這篇文章以《“智商”是不可改變的嗎?》為題被全文收入。
筆者幾年前閱讀這篇文章時,即有一種似曾相識的感覺。近日一個偶然的機會,終于發現了其中的奧秘。原來,這篇文章基本上是根據兩本英文書翻譯而成。這兩本書分別是,已故哈佛大學教授、著名科學史學者古爾德(Stephen Jay Gould, 1941-2002)寫的《誤測人類》(The Mismeasure of Man),1981年初版,1996年再版。另一本書是加拿大西安大略大學數學教授道尼(Alexander Keewatin Dewdney, 1041-)寫的《對,我們沒有中子》(Yes, we have no neutrons),1997年出版。這兩本書各有一章專門講述“智商”的發展史,它們分別是《誤測人類》的第五章《智商的遺傳學派理論:一個美國的發明》(The Hereditarian Theory of IQ: An American Invention.見該書176-263頁),和《對,我們沒有中子》的第二章《智力數字:智商的古怪理論》(Mind Numbers: The Curious Theory of the Intelligence Quotient. 見該書29-45頁)。
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大致說來,古爾德的書屬于學術著術,篇幅比較大,敘述詳細,論證嚴密,引用文字也比較多。而道尼的書,則屬于反“偽科學”的科普書,文字淺顯,篇幅也比較簡短。實際上,道尼書的第二章,完全可以看作是古爾德書第五章的縮寫,因為不論從內容還是從視角來看,它都沒有超出后者的范圍。只不過是,道尼在文章中提到古爾德的著作,并且還把它列為“深入閱讀書目”中,所以,不能算是抄襲之作。
而方舟子的《“智商”的誤區》,實際上就是以道尼的文章為骨架,然后根據古爾德的文章來充實內容寫成的。
《“智商”的誤區》與英語著述:驚人的相同
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1、結構相同
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不計標點符號,《“智商”的誤區》全文6136字,分為13個自然段。除了第一段367字、第12段后半部分287字、和末尾段258字筆者沒有找到相應的英文原文之外,其余的文字,即85%的文字,都是根據英文文章寫成。而這些文字中,又有80%的文字來自前面提到的兩本書。換句話說就是,方文從第二段開始,到第十一段的上半段,幾乎全部來自古爾德和道尼這兩本書。(見下表)。這個表格說明,方文的整體結構、敘述方式與古爾德和道尼的英文文章完全相同。(注:方文第十一段的后半段,根據的是1997年7月31日《自然》雜志的一篇文章,第十二段上半部分,根據的可能是2000年英國廣播公司BBC的一篇新聞報道。)
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2、觀點相同
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誠然,方舟子的文章根據智商概念的發展歷史來進行敘述,而古爾德和道尼也是做相似的敘述,因此方文如果僅僅在結構上與他們的文章相同,并不十分奇怪。奇怪的是,方舟子與古爾德、道尼的觀點也完全一致。不論是古爾德的文章,還是道尼的文章,主旨都是一樣的,那就是批駁所謂“智商學派”的基因決定論。而他們的這個觀點,又都是基于所謂的“整體主義”哲學觀。可是,方舟子是堅定的還原主義者,認為“還原主義是一種科學思想,它認為高層次可以還原成低層次、整體可以還原成各組分加以研究。”(見其《還原主義的勝利》,2000年3月15日《中華讀書報》),“還原是一種完善的研究方法,研究各組分的關系足以推導、解釋整體的性質。”(見其《還原主義和整體主義述評》,《自然辯證法研究》2000年11期)。因此,在“智商”這個問題上,方舟子本來應該與古爾德、道尼水火不相容才對。可是,方舟子的觀點不僅與他們完全一致,他還更進一步,下了這樣的斷言:“找到某個特定的智力基因的可能性可以說為零。”顯然,方舟子在寫作這篇文章時已經完全接受了古爾德等人的整體主義觀點。
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3、文字相同
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當然,最讓人驚異的是,方文幾乎就是古爾德、道尼英文文章的直接翻譯。可以這樣說,從第二段起,到第九段止,幾乎每句話都可以在這兩篇英文文章中找到相應的文字。即使是一些無法確定來源的字句,其內容也都是根據這兩個人的觀點和材料發揮而成。且看以下幾段文字的比較:
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方舟子:1905年發表的第一版只是把測試問題按從易到難排列。在1908年發表的第二版中,比納把這些問題按“心理年齡”排列。
古爾德:The original 1905 edition simply arranged the tasks in an ascending order of difficulty. The 1908 version established the criterion used in measuring the so-called IQ ever since. (179頁)
方舟子:受測試者從為最小的心理年齡設計的問題開始測試,難度逐漸增加,與受測試者所能回答的最后問題相關的心理年齡就是這個受測試者的心理年齡。受測試者的心理年齡減去其實際年齡,即是其智力水平。
古爾德:A child began the Binet test with tasks for the youngest age and proceeded in sequence until he could no longer complete the tasks. The age associated with the last tasks he could perform became his "mental age," and his general intellectual level was calculated by subtracting this mental age from his true chronological age.(179-180頁)
方舟子:如果心理年齡低于實際年齡,說明未達到同齡人的學習能力水平,那就需要特別輔導。
古爾德:Children whose mental ages were sufficiently behind their chronological ages could then be identified for special educational programs, (180頁)
方舟子:在 1912年,德國心理學家威廉·斯登(William Stern)認為,將心理年齡除以實際年齡,更能準確地反映智力水平,“智商”(IQ)由此誕生。
古爾德:In 1912 the German psychologist W. Stern argued that mental age should be divided by chronological age, not subtracted from it, and the intelligence quotient, or IQ, was born. (180頁)
方舟子:在當時,心理學上把精神發育遲滯分成兩種:心理年齡不到三歲,不具有完備的語言能力的被稱為白癡,心理年齡在三歲到七歲之間,有語言能力但沒有閱讀、書寫能力的被稱為癡愚。
道尼:In Goddard's time, psychologists defined "idiots" as those who never developed full speech and could barely progress beyond the general competence of a three year-old. The next higher classification, "imbeciles," could speak well enough but seemed incapable of learning to read or write. An imbecile, by definition, had a mental age of somewhere between three and seven years. (32 頁)。
方舟子:戈達德認為,在癡愚和正常人之間,還應該存在一個心理年齡在八到十二歲的等級,他稱之為愚魯。愚魯的人能夠學會閱讀、書寫,但是其能力永遠達不到正常人的水平。
道尼:To bring the taxonomy of mental retardation up to date, Goddard coined the word "moron.” One level above imbeciles, morons occupied a gray area between idiots and imbeciles on the one hand, and fully competent people the other. Morons might learn to read and write, but their skills would always be somewhat marginal. (32 頁)。
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顯然,如此相似的文字,或者說相同,出自巧合的可能性根本就不存在。
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4、錯誤相同
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不僅結構相同、觀點相同、文字相同,方文的一個錯誤也與道尼的一模一樣。原來,道尼為了證明智商不是先天決定的,而是可以受后天教育影響的,于是援引了一個1946年的例子。而方舟子把這段話完完全全地照譯了過來:
方舟子:但是智商學派卻認定他們測定的是受遺傳因素決定的、天生的、不可改變的普遍智力。在40年代,美國社會學家史密特(Bernadine Schmidt)決定驗證這個說法。他在芝加哥選定了254名來自社會底層的12到14歲少年做為研究對象。這些少年都被認為低能,平均智商只有52。史密特對這些少年進行了三年的強化訓練,包括培養他們良好的學習習慣、生活作風、學術基本技能等。三年后重新對他們進行智商測試,發現他們的平均智商增加到 72,整整長了20分。五年后,史密特對他們再次做了測試,發現其平均智商繼續增加,達到了89,進入了正常人范圍,而且有四分之一的人的智商增長在50 分以上。這個實驗已說明了智商的高低并不是不可改變的,也就不可能完全由遺傳因素決定,而與后天的教育有關。
道尼:To the degree that IQ (as measured) turns out to be a highly plastic number, one cannot claim that it is inherited to any significant degree. Perhaps the most telling demonstration of the plasticity of IQ came in 1946 when Bernadine Schmidt, a young social scientist from Chicago, published a classic study in the journal Psychological Monographs. Schmidt's article, an unprecedented 144 pages long, described changes in the social, cultural, and intellectual behavior of 254 children of ages between twelve to fourteen. The children, who all came from disadvantaged or dysfunctional homes in the Chicago area, had all been classified as “feebleminded.” Their average IQ was 52, as compared with a nationwide average of about 100.
Schmidt conducted an intensive three-year training program that involved personal behavior, fundamental academic skills, manipulative arts, and good study habits. At the end of the period the students were tested again and proved to have an average IQ of 72, a full 20-point increase. Five years later, Schmidt tested her subjects again and found the average had increased to 89 with one-quarter of the students having gained more than 50 points. (42-43 頁)
史密特的論文長達144頁,但方舟子的280字段落卻與道尼的不到二百單詞的兩段總結完全相同。除了是“照譯”這個解釋之外,還能有其他解釋嗎?
那么,為什么說這個例子是錯誤的呢?原來,史密特的論文發表于1946年,但由于結果太過怪異,發表之后就受到教育學界和心理學界專家的普遍懷疑。到了1948年,伊利諾伊大學教授科克(Samuel A. Kirk)發表文章,證明這是一起學術騙局。第一,根據芝加哥1937-1940年接受特殊教育學生的原始檔案,他們的平均智商是69,一半以上的學生智商高于69,智商低于50的總共才178人,占學生總數的2%左右。可是,史密特學生的平均智商為52,并且沒有一個人的智商超過69。那么,這254名學生是怎么湊起來的呢?第二,科克發現,史密特教授的三個班級學生的初始智商分別為64,69,69,而不是她所說的52。第三,科克找不到史密特曾經擔任過這三個班級“主教師”的任何證據。(見:KIRK, S. A. An evaluation of the study by Bernardine G. Schmidt entitled, Changes in personal, social, and intellectual behavior of children originally classified as feebleminded. Psychol Bull. 1948 Jul;45:321-333. )
顯然,古爾德知道上述事實,所以他的書一直沒有引用史密特的這個例子。而數學家道尼卻懵懵懂懂地把這個例子拿了過來當證據。結果,他的這本篇文章被人嘲笑為“外行”(inexperience)。(Sherman, M. Trials of Errors. American Scientist. 1998, March/April. 見:http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/trials-of-errors)。可嘆方舟子這位科普作家、打假斗士,卻把半個世紀前美國的學術造假材料當成了真理,“普及”給了中國大眾。
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問題的性質:創作、翻譯、編譯、還是抄襲?
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撰寫科普文章,一般可以分為創作、翻譯、編譯幾種方式。由于科普寫作主要是介紹前人創造出來的知識,參考前人的文獻不僅是不可避免的,而且是必須的。方舟子先生曾說,“我以前一再強調,科普著作應該由專家撰寫,因為只有專家才可能具有必要的學科知識,并能閱讀原始論文,根據第一手的材料寫作。”(見其《虛妄的“人體革命”》,《中華讀書報》2000年11月1日)。顯然,方舟子先生如果真的像他自己所說的那樣進行科普寫作,其文章應該算是創作。但僅從《“智商”的誤區》來看,方舟子先生根本就不“具有必要的學科知識”,并且,他也根本就沒有“閱讀原始論文”。所以說,方舟子的這篇文章,即使不是照譯別人的文章,也不能算是創作。
根據外文文章進行寫作,可以分為翻譯和編譯兩種。據《現代漢語詞典》的解釋,翻譯的意思是“把一種語言文字的意思用另一種語言文字表達出來”,編譯的意思是“編輯和翻譯”。一般說來,要確定某篇文章到底屬于翻譯稿還是編譯稿,不僅要看其中某段話、某句話的意思是不是來自另一種語言文字的某篇文章,而且還要分析這段話、這句話的語言結構和特點與相應的外文文章是否相似。根據上面的比較,《“智商”的誤區》的很多段落都是在逐字逐句翻譯古爾德、道尼的文章。而通觀全文,方舟子的文章結構、觀點,甚至夾敘夾議的方式都與這兩本書極為相似。因此,方舟子的這篇文章只能定性為翻譯。
根據中外著作權法,翻譯別人的作品,不論是用于什么目的,都首先要得到原著作權擁有者的授權。不僅如此,翻譯作品還必須給出原作者的姓名、原作的名稱等信息,并且注明這是翻譯作品。古爾德和道尼的書,都有“版權聲明”。道尼的書的版權聲明特別說,翻譯這本書必須得到版權所有人的許可。沒有得到許可的翻譯屬于違法行為。(Reproduction or transmission of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.)雖然我們無法得知方舟子先生翻譯這兩篇文章是否得到了原作者的授權,但是,我們確實知道,他在文章中沒有透露原作者的半點信息,并且把這篇文章當作了自己的作品一再發表。所以,我們可以肯定,方舟子的這篇作品不是合法的翻譯作品。
根據國家版權局版權管理司的定義,“將他人作品或者作品的片段竊為己有發表”就是抄襲行為。(國家版權局版權管理司《權司【1999】第6 號》,見:《百度百科》“抄襲”條)。不僅如此,方舟子先生本人也這么認為。2010 年3 月22 日,方舟子在新語絲讀書論壇上說:
“‘成段的引文獻’也算抄襲,大概是松鼠會的獨創;‘直接是英語文章翻過來的’卻公認是抄襲。我被人稱為‘學術打假人士’,整天揭發別人抄襲,如果自己也干抄襲的勾當,這樣的‘人’是該被分到最卑劣的一群里頭去的。”(見:http://www.xys.org/forum/db/6/133/167.html)
這樣一來,一個不可避免的結論就是:方舟子的《“智商”的誤區》是一篇跨國界、跨語言、侵犯他人版權的全面抄襲之作。
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附錄:中英文對照
注:《“智商”的誤區》全文照錄。為了方便比較,沒有保持原有格式。疑似來自英文之處,將英文列出。英文來自兩本書,Gould指古爾德的The Mismeasure of Man;Dewdney指道尼的Yes, we have no neutrons。每段英文末尾的頁碼為該段文字在書中的位置。【】之中是筆者的注解和評論。
《“智商”的誤區》
方舟子
許多生物學家都會同意,人并不是地球上唯一的智能生物。類人猿和海豚也有一定的智能,不過與人類的智能相比,其實是微不足道的。我們也找不到有其他的生物像人類一樣,智力在生活中占了主宰地位。在進入文明社會以后,人類的競爭更多地表現為斗智而非斗勇。白癡恐怕是最嚴重的殘疾。既然智力對人類生活是如此重要,研究其高低強弱就成了一個令人感興趣的問題。我們很容易區分白癡和正常人。但是要區分正常人的智力高低,卻不是容易的事。聰明和愚蠢只是定性的判斷,而且并非固定不變。有沒有可能定量地測定一個人天生的智力?在大腦被確定為思維器官之后,許多研究者就試圖通過測量人腦的大小、形狀判定智力的高低。這在一定程度上并非沒有道理。人和類人猿的智力區別,很大程度上就是由于腦容量的懸殊。人類的進化史,也經常被描述為腦容量不斷增加的歷史。但是腦容量的大小,是否也能夠適用于現代人的內部?直至19世紀末,仍有一些科學家對此堅信不疑。
其中最著名的大概是法國解剖學家、人類學家保羅·白洛嘉(Paul Broca)。他對人腦研究有重要貢獻,發現了人腦的語言運動中樞,被稱為“白洛嘉中樞”。他認為人的智力越高,大腦越大。另一位法國人、心理學家阿弗雷德·比納(Alfred Binet)起初也接受這種見解,并決定通過測量證明之。
Dewdney:Years earlier, he [指比納] had followed with fascination the craniometric studies of another famous countryman, Paul Broca (after whom Broca’s Area of the human brain is named), who claimed that more intelligent people had larger heads. (29頁)。
從1898年到 1900年,比納對幾所小學做了調查。他先讓教師選出一個班級中最聰明的和最笨的學生,然后用白洛嘉建議的方法測量這些學生的腦袋大小。
Gould:Binet went to various schools, making Broca's recommended measurements on the heads of pupils designated by teachers as their smartest and stupidest. (176頁)
在這項研究結束的時候,比納不得不改變了看法。
Gould:By the end of this effort, he was no longer so sure. (176頁)
聰明學生的平均腦袋大小僅僅比笨學生的大了大約一毫米,可以忽略不計,而且可能是由于聰明學生的平均身高比笨學生略高的結果。
Gould:Binet found his differences, but they were much too small to matter and might only record the greater average height of better pupils (1.401 vs. 1.378 meters). Most measures did favor the better students, but the average difference between good and poor amounted to a mere millimeter — "extremement petite" as Binet wrote. (177頁)
另外,腦袋大小在學生中差異很大,腦袋最大的和腦袋最小的,都屬于笨學生。
Gould:The differences were too small, and Binet also found that poor students varied more than their smarter counterparts. Thus, although the smallest value usually belonged to a poor pupil, the highest often did as well. (177頁)
比納還發現了腦袋測量的結果很容易受測量者的偏向的影響,即在認定被測量者是聰明的時測量結果會下意識地偏大,反之則偏小,這種誤差能達到三毫米,超過了聰明學生和笨學生的平均差異。
Gould:To make matters worse, some measures usually judged crucial in the assessment of mental worth favored the poorer pupils—for anteroposterior diameter of the skull, poorer students exceeded their smarter colleagues by 3.0 mm. (177頁)
【注:方舟子此處屬于誤譯或者故意篡改作者原意。古爾德此處是說比納測量學生的前額大小,發現差生比好生大三毫米。接下來,古爾德說比納發現測量者記錄測量結果會受到主觀意識的影響。
Binet also fueled his own doubts with an extraordinary study of his own suggestibility, an experiment in the primary theme of this book—the tenacity of unconscious bias and the surprising malleability of "objective," quantitative data in the interest of a preconceived idea. "I feared," Binet wrote (1900, p. 323), "that in making measurements on heads with the intention of finding a difference in volume between an intelligent and a less intelligent head, I would be led to increase, unconsciously and in good faith, the cephalic volume of intelligent heads and to decrease that of unintelligent heads." He recognized the greater danger lurking when biases are submerged and a scientist believes in his own objectivity (1900, p. 324): "Suggestibility . . . works less on an act of which we have full consciousness, than on a half-conscious act — and this is precisely its danger." (177頁)。
方舟子沒有“翻譯”這段話,而是把它的意思與前一段話混到了一起。】
這三個結果都說明了測量腦袋大小不是一種測定智力的可靠辦法。【注:這段話屬于方舟子的“原創”。】
在1904年,比納被法國教育部要求研究一種辦法鑒定那些學習能力有問題、需要特別輔導的小學生。或者說,要找出一種鑒定學生智力高低的辦法。
Gould:In 1904 Binet was commissioned by the minister of public education to perform a study for a specific, practical purpose: to develop techniques for identifying those children whose lack of success in normal classrooms suggested the need for some form of special education. (179頁)
這時候,比納已放棄了從大腦形態鑒定智力的努力,而改用測試辦法。
Gould:When Binet returned to the measurement of intelligence in 1904, he remembered his previous frustration and switched to other techniques. He abandoned what he called the "medical" approaches of craniometry and the search for Lombroso's anatomical stigmata, and decided instead on "psychological" methods. (178-179頁)
他發明了一套與功課的內容沒有關系,只測試學生的推理能力的試卷。
Dewdney:He devised a test that resembled an examination but which did not address scholastic questions. Instead, the questions on this test reflected a student's ability to reason about simple things such as coins, faces, and other everyday object. (30頁)。
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到1911年比納去世時,他共發表了三種智力測試的版本。
Gould:Binet published three versions of the scale before his death in 1911. (179頁)
1905年發表的第一版只是把測試問題按從易到難排列。在1908年發表的第二版中,比納把這些問題按“心理年齡”排列。
Dewdney:By 1905 Binet had completed the first version of his test, in which he arranged the tasks in order of difficulty. In the second version of his test, completed in 1908, Binet rearranged the questions in order of "mental age”. (30頁)
他設想,對每一個問題,智力正常的小孩要能夠回答的話,最少要有多少歲,這個年齡被當做“心理年齡”。
Dewdney:For each question, he reasoned, there would be a minimum age at which a normal or average child might reasonably be expected to answer it correctly. (30頁)
受測試者從為最小的心理年齡設計的問題開始測試,難度逐漸增加,與受測試者所能回答的最后問題相關的心理年齡就是這個受測試者的心理年齡。受測試者的心理年齡減去其實際年齡,即是其智力水平。
Gould:A child began the Binet test with tasks for the youngest age and proceeded in sequence until he could no longer complete the tasks. The age associated with the last tasks he could perform became his "mental age," and his general intellectual level was calculated by subtracting this mental age from his true chronological age.(179-180頁)
如果心理年齡低于實際年齡,說明未達到同齡人的學習能力水平,那就需要特別輔導。
Gould:Children whose mental ages were sufficiently behind their chronological ages could then be identified for special educational programs, (180頁)
在 1912年,德國心理學家威廉·斯登(William Stern)認為,將心理年齡除以實際年齡,更能準確地反映智力水平,“智商”(IQ)由此誕生。
Gould:In 1912 the German psychologist W. Stern argued that mental age should be divided by chronological age, not subtracted from it, and the intelligence quotient, or IQ, was born. (180頁)
但是比納本人很清楚,他發明的這套測試,并不是真正在測量智力,“因為智力的好壞是不能疊加的,因此不能像測量線性表面那樣地測量。”
Dewdney:As if aware of how his test might be later abused, Binet gave specific warnings about the dangers of misuse: "The scale, properly speaking, does not permit the measure of the intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured.” (31頁)
換言之,智力是一種極其復雜的、多樣化的現象,不能簡單地以一個數字來表示。而且,比納也很清楚,這套測試所設定的所謂“心理年齡”,只是許多測試者的平均結果,并不代表一個真正的實在。
Gould:Moreover, the number is only an average of many performances, not an entity unto itself. Intelligence, Binet reminds us, is not a single, scalable thing like height. (181頁)
在去世的那一年,他警告說:如果根據測試結果說一個八歲小孩有七歲或九歲的智力,那只是一種簡單化的、主觀的說法,容易引起誤解,導致其智力測試是真正在測量智力的幻覺。
Gould:"We feel it necessary to insist on this fact," Binet ( 1911 ) cautions, "because later, for the sake of simplicity of statement, we will speak of a child of 8 years having the intelligence of a child of 7 or 9 years; these expressions, if accepted arbitrarily, may give place to illusions." (181頁)
總之,比納測試只是一種實用性的測試,目的是為了發現學習能力有問題的兒童,并不是真正在測量智力,也不用于對正常兒童劃分智力等級。
Gould:Not only did Binet decline to label IQ as inborn intelligence; he also refused to regard it as a general device for ranking all pupils according to mental worth. He devised his scale only for the limited purpose of his commission by the ministry of education: as a practical guide for identifying children whose poor performance indicated a need for special education — those who we would today call learning disabled or mildly retarded. (182頁)
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那些被發現學習能力有問題的兒童,也不一定是天生如此、不可改變,通過特殊的訓練有可能提高其能力。
Gould:But of one thing Binet was sure: whatever the cause of poor performance in school, the aim of his scale was to identify in order to help and improve, not to label in order to limit. Some children might be innately incapable of normal achievement, but all could improve with special help. (182頁)
比納所擔心的,恰恰在美國出現。在1910年,一個叫戈達德(H. H. Goddard)的美國心理學家將比納測試譯成英文,引進美國,但為它找到了一個全新的、經久不衰的用途。
Gould:Goddard was the first popularizer of the Binet scale in America. He translated Binet's articles into English, applied his tests, and agitated for their general use. (189頁)
在當時,心理學上把精神發育遲滯分成兩種:心理年齡不到三歲,不具有完備的語言能力的被稱為白癡,心理年齡在三歲到七歲之間,有語言能力但沒有閱讀、書寫能力的被稱為癡愚。
Dewdney:In Goddard's time, psychologists defined "idiots" as those who never developed full speech and could barely progress beyond the general competence of a three year-old. The next higher classification, "imbeciles," could speak well enough but seemed incapable of learning to read or write. An imbecile, by definition, had a mental age of somewhere between three and seven years. (32 頁)
戈達德認為,在癡愚和正常人之間,還應該存在一個心理年齡在八到十二歲的等級,他稱之為愚魯。愚魯的人能夠學會閱讀、書寫,但是其能力永遠達不到正常人的水平。
Dewdney:To bring the taxonomy of mental retardation up to date, Goddard coined the word "moron.” One level above imbeciles, morons occupied a gray area between idiots and imbeciles on the one hand, and fully competent people the other. Morons might learn to read and write, but their skills would always be somewhat marginal. (32 頁)
在戈達德看來,愚魯對社會的危害更大,許多犯罪分子,絕大多數酗酒者和妓女,甚至不適應社會的人,全都是愚魯者。
Gould:Many criminals, most alcoholics and prostitutes, and even the "ne'er do wells" who simply don't fit in, are morons: "We know what feeble-mindedness is, and we have come to suspect all persons who are incapable of adapting themselves to their environment and living up to the conventions of society or acting sensibly, of being feeble-minded". (191頁)
我們很容易識別白癡和癡愚,他們一般沒有生殖能力或無生殖的興趣,有興趣的話也難以有機會,因此其劣質基因難以遺傳。
Gould:The idiot is not our greatest problem. He is indeed loathsome. . . .Nevertheless, he lives his life and is done. He does not continue the race with a line of children like himself. (192頁)
但是愚魯在表面上難以與正常人區別開來,他們有正常的生殖能力,甚至生殖力旺盛,其劣質基因將會遺傳下去、擴散開去。如何鑒別愚魯者并防止其生殖,是當時“優生學”運動的主要目標。戈達德認為,比納測試就是鑒定愚魯者的一個好辦法。
Dewdney:Binet’s new tests, he discovered, were just the thing to detect morons. The eugenics movement, started by the statistician Francis Galton in England two decades earlier, had taken root in America. There was much concern in some quarters that if the feebleminded and moronic were allowed to breed and produce children, the population as a whole would become polluted with these undesirable genes. (32頁)
這完全背叛了比納的初衷。戈達德認為比納測試是真正地測試智力,而且是先天的、遺傳而來的、不可改變的智力。
Gould:Binet refused to define his scores as "intelligence," and wished to identify in order to help. Goddard regarded the scores as measures of a single, innate entity. (189頁)
今天我們已認識到,有許多因素可以導致精神發育遲滯,例如孕期生病、濫用藥物,胎兒、嬰兒營養不良,大腦受到外傷,等等,當然也有的是遺傳病。
Gould:Consider some of the potential causes: inherited patterns of function, genetic pathologies arising accidentally and not passed in family lines, congenital brain damage caused by maternal illness during pregnancy, birth traumas, poor nutrition of fetuses and babies, a variety of environmental disadvantages in early and later life. (190頁)
人體的任何主要性狀,都是許多基因彼此相互作用、基因與環境相互作用以及偶然因素的影響的結果。
Gould:We now know that virtually every major feature of our body is built by the interaction of many genes with each other and with an external environment.(192頁)
然而,戈達德卻把所有的精神發育遲滯全都歸為遺傳引起的。他甚至認為智力就像孟德爾豌豆的顏色、性狀一樣,是由一對等位基因決定的,一個來自父親,一個來自母親。那些沒有正常的智力基因而只有與之等位的“隱性的”精神遲滯基因的,就會是愚魯、癡愚、白癡。那些只有一個正常的智力基因的,則是只適于干粗活的笨蛋。
Gould:But in these early days, many biologists naively assumed that all human traits would behave like the color, size, or wrinkling of Mendel's peas: they believed, in short, that even the most complex parts of a body might be built by single genes, and that variation in anatomy or behavior would record the different dominant and recessive forms of these genes. (192頁)
Dewdney:Goddard, after all, believing in “intelligence” as a single, fixed entity that could be measured more or less precisely. He also believed that it was passed on by a specific gene from each parent. Those who received no genes for intelligence would be morons, or worse. Those who received only one gene would be fit for “dull labor” but little else. (33頁)
如果智力障礙真的是由一個基因決定的,那么就有一個簡單的辦法將其消滅:禁止智力障礙者生育。
Gould:If mental deficiency is the effect of a single gene, the path to its eventual elimination lies evidently before us: do not allow such people to bear children: (193頁)
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如果愚魯者能夠為了人類的幸福未來而自覺地控制自己的性欲,那么我們還可以允許他們自由地生活。
Gould:If morons could control their own sexual urges and desist for the good of mankind, we might permit them to live freely among us. (193頁)
但是愚蠢必然導致不道德,愚魯者是不可能自覺地放棄自己的生殖權利的,因此必須采取強制措施。
Gould:But they cannot, because immorality and stupidity are inexorably linked. (193頁)
Gould:So that if we are absolutely to prevent a feeble-minded person from becoming a parent, something must be done other than merely prohibiting the marrying.(194頁)
戈達德并不反對對愚魯者實施絕育手術,但是他認為把他們像精神病人一樣關起來與社會隔離,是個更容易被接受的做法。
Gould:Goddard did not oppose sterilization, but he regarded it as impractical because traditional sensibilities of a society not yet wholly rational would prevent such widespread mayhem. Colonization in exemplary institutions like his own at Vineland, New Jersey, must be our preferred solution. (194頁)
同時,美國做為一個移民國家,還面臨著一個外來的威脅:外國的愚魯者正蜂擁而來,必須把他們擋在國門之外。這顯然要比隔離美國本地的愚魯者更容易做到。
Gould:Preventing the immigration and propagation of morons (194頁)【注:這是一小節的標題。】
在 1912年,戈達德及其助手到了紐約埃利斯島,用比納測試測定申請移民者的智力。
Gould:As a contribution to the second step, Goddard and his associates visited Ellis Island in 1912 "to observe conditions and offer any suggestions as to what might be done to secure a more thorough examination of immigrants for the purpose of detecting mental defectives”. (195頁)
結果令人吃驚:83%的猶太人,80%的匈牙利人,79%的意大利人和 87%的俄國人的心理年齡都低于十二歲,也即屬于低能。
Gould:Binet tests on the four groups led to an astounding result: 83 percent of the Jews, 80 percent of the Hungarians, 79 percent of the Italians, and 87 percent of the Russians were feeble-minded — that is, below age twelve on the Binet scale. (196頁)
難道這些民族的五分之四的人口居然都精神發育不全?連戈達德本人都不敢相信,對測試結果進行了修正,使移民申請者中低能的比例降到了40%到50%。但是這個比例仍然高得離譜。
Gould:Goddard himself was flabbergasted: could anyone be made to believe that four-fifths of any nation were morons? …… Eventually, Goddard monkied about with the tests, tossed several out, and got his figures down to 40 to 50 percent, but still he was disturbed. (196頁)
原因本來不難設想,這些受測試者絕大多數是窮人,從未上過學,有的甚至從未握過筆,一句英語不懂,在經過長途海上顛簸之后,疲頓不堪,精神緊張,惶恐不安地立即接受智商測試,怎么能指望他們發揮正常水平?
Gould:Goddard's figures were even more absurd than he imagined for two reasons, one obvious, the other less so.…… For the evident reason, consider a group of frightened men and women who speak no English and who have just endured an oceanic voyage in steerage. Most are poor and have never gone to school; many have never held a pencil or pen in their hand. They march off the boat; one of Goddard's intuitive women takes them aside shortly thereafter, sits them down, hands them a pencil, and asks them to reproduce on paper a figure shown to them a moment ago, but now withdrawn from their sight. Could their failure be a result of testing conditions, of weakness, fear, or confusion, rather than of innate stupidity? (196頁)
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但是戈達德卻排除了這些環境因素,而把測試結果不佳歸于先天的愚蠢,認定這些新移民的確有令人驚訝的低等智力,而愚魯者比例奇高的原因,是因為移民的質量在下降,外國高智商者傾向于留在本國,而低智商者傾向于移民美國。因此,嚴格把好移民關就成了當務之急。戈達德非常自豪地報道說,在那些相信可以用智商測試檢測低能外國人的美國醫生的不懈努力下,在1913年,由于智力不健全而被驅逐的移民增加了350%,在1914年則比前五年的平均人數增加了570%。
Gould:Since environment, either European or immediate, could not explain such abject failure, Goddard stated: "We cannot escape the general conclusion that these immigrants were of surprisingly low intelligence" (1917, p. 251). The high proportion of morons still bothered Goddard, but he finally attributed it to the changing character of immigration: "It should be noted that the immigration of recent years is of a decidedly different character from the early immigration…We are now getting the poorest of each race” (1917, p.266). "The intelligence of the average 'third class' immigrant is low, perhaps of moron grade" (1917, p. 243). Perhaps, Goddard hoped out loud, things were better on the upper decks, but he did not test these wealthier customers. (197頁)
到了1928年,戈達德改變了看法,承認那些比納測試的心理年齡低于十二歲者,只有一小部分是真正的低能,而即使是愚魯,也能通過教育和訓練使他們過上正常的社會生活,而不必加以隔離。至此,戈達德的立場與比納的立場已沒有什么區別。
Gould:By 1928 Goddard had changed his mind and become a latterday supporter of the man whose work he had originally perverted, Alfred Binet. Goddard admitted, …… We now know, of course, that only a small percentage of the people who test 12 are actually feeble-minded…… (202頁)
Gould:Goddard concluded (1928, p. 225) in reversing the two bulwarks of his former system:
1. Feeble-mindedness (the moron) is not incurable [Goddard's italics].
2. The feeble-minded do not generally need to be segregated in institutions. (204頁)
但是在這時候,比納測試被做為測試天生智力的方法,早已在美國流傳開去。這得歸功于另一位心理學家、斯坦福大學教授路易斯·特曼(Lewis M. Terman)。
Gould:Goddard introduced Binet's scale to America, but Terman was the primary architect of its popularity. (205頁)
1911年比納測試的最后版本包括54道題,只測試到十六歲水平。特曼在1916年對比納測試做了擴展,包括90道題,測試到“超級成人”水平。
Gould:Binet's last version of 1911 included fifty-four tasks, graded from prenursery to mid-teen-age years. Terman's first revision of 1916 extended the scale to "superior adults" and increased the-number of tasks to ninety. (205頁)
特曼將每個年齡的兒童平均得分設為100(即心理年齡等于實際年齡),允許有15分的偏差。
Gould:By careful juggling and elimination, Terman standardized the scale so that "average" children would score 100 at each age (mental age equal to chronological age). Terman also evened out the variation among children by establishing a standard deviation of 15 or 16 points at each chronological age. (207頁)
他把這個測試稱為斯坦福-比納測試。
Gould:Terman, by then a professor at Stanford University, gave his revision a name that has become part of our century's vocabulary—the Stanford-Binet, the standard for virtually all "IQ" tests that followed. (205頁)
和戈達德一樣,特曼認為低能是社會敗壞的根源,“并非所有的犯罪分子都是低能者,但是所有的低能者都至少是可能的犯罪分子。誰都難以否認,每一個低能的婦女都是可能的妓女。道德判斷,就像商業判斷、社會判斷或其他任何高等層次的思維品質,是智力的功能。如果智力滯留在幼稚狀態,道德不可能開花結果。”
Gould:Not all criminals are feeble-minded, but all feeble-minded persons are at least potential criminals. That every feeble-minded woman is a potential prostitute would hardly be disputed by anyone. Moral judgment, like business judgment, social judgment, or any other kind of higher thought process, is a function of intelligence. Morality cannot flower and fruit if intelligence remains infantile (1916, p. 11). (211頁)
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特曼認為智商高低決定了在社會上的成功與否,一個理想的社會是根據每個人的智商進行分工的社會,智商低于 75只適合于干粗活,75-85只適于干半技術活,“智商高于85者當理發師,可能是一種嚴重的浪費”,而要在社會上成功,可能需要有115或120以上的智商。
Gould:Terman virtually closed professions of prestige and monetary reward to people with IQ below 100 (1919, p. 282), and argued that "substantial success" probably required an IQ above 115 or120. (211-212頁)
Gould:IQ of 75 or below should be the realm of unskilled labor, 75 to 85 "preeminently the range for semi-skilled labor." More specific judgments could also be made. "Anything above 85 IQ in the case of a barber probably represents so much dead waste" (1919, p. 288). (212頁)
因此特曼希望能測定社會上每個人的智商,由此有了另一個創新:使智力測試大眾化、商業化。比納測試必須由經過訓練的人員主持,每次只能對一個兒童進行測試,因此不可能大規模地進行。但是特曼卻希望每個人都接受斯坦福-比納測試,為測試提供了標準答案,因此任何人都可以主持測試、評定結果。
Gould:Binet's tasks had to be administered by a trained tester working with one child at a time. They could not be used as instruments for general ranking. But Terman wished to test everybody, for he hoped to establish a gradation of innate ability that could sort all children into their proper stations in life:
What pupils shall be tested? The answer is, all. ……. Universal testing is fully warranted (1923, p. 22).(206-207頁)
Dewdney:Problems with the Binet scale and its application led Lewis M. Terman, an educational psychologist at Stanford University, to revise the test, producing by 1917 what we now call the Stanford - Binet scale. Terman extended the number of questions from 54 to 90. Many of the new questions were for "superior adults. While the Binet test had been administered orally by a trained tester, the new Stanford-Binet test was to be a written one. The new test, moreover, would hardly be confined to selected students. Terman already foresaw a universal IQ test: “What pupils shall be tested? The answer is All.” (33頁)
一個兒童在經過五次30分鐘的測試后,就被測定了智商高低,該結果可能影響其一生。
Gould:Thirty minutes and five tests might mark a child for life, if schools adopted the following examination, advertised in Terman 1923, and constructed by a committee that included Thorndike, Yerkes, and Terman himself.(207頁)
智商測試很快成為了一個產值數百萬美元的大工業,各種各樣的版本被發明、推銷,而所有這些版本都以斯坦福-比納測試為依據。斯坦福-比納測試成了以后所有智商測試的標準,一直被使用到現在。
Gould:Testing soon became a multimillion-dollar industry; marketing companies dared not take a chance with tests not proven by their correlation with Terman's standard. (207頁)
Gould:……the Stanford-Binet became (and in many respects remains to this day) the primary criterion for judging a plethora of mass-marketed written tests that followed. (207頁)
但是從一開始,“智商”學派就在學術界遭到了批評,這些批評至今也沒有平息,而智商學派幾十年來也未能充分地回應這些批評。
Dewdney:For the foregoing reason and others as well, the IQ school has been under more or less continuous attack from the beginning. The concept of IQ has been criticized by psychologists, biologists, physicists, mathematicians, and philosophers of science. To counter these criticisms, the IQ school has cleverly drawn its intellectual wagons into a circle. (37頁)。
智商學派聲稱智力測試與文化背景、學習內容無關,測試的是抽象的推理能力。但是他們提供的某些問題和標準答案,顯然是在測試對一個特定的文化中的社會規范的理解程度。
例如在斯坦福-比納測試中,有一道題是:“我的鄰居來了三個不尋常的訪問者,先是一位醫生到他家,然后是一位律師,然后是一位牧師。你認為那里發生了什么事?”特曼提供的標準答案是“死亡”:醫生做最后搶救和死亡鑒定,律師草擬遺囑,牧師接受臨終懺悔。顯然,一個不了解西方臨終習俗的人,很難做出正確的回答,將會被認為 “愚蠢”。即使是在西方國家生活智力正常的人,也不一定會按標準答案回答。特曼只對一名他稱為“有覺悟的年輕優生學者”的男孩的非標準答案破例接受(這名男孩回答說是“結婚”:醫生來查看未婚夫妻是否適合結婚,律師草擬婚約,牧師主持婚禮),但是對其他答案一概認為是錯誤的,最常見的錯誤答案是“離婚后再婚”,至于其他雖然合理但是太簡單的答案像“聚餐”、“娛樂”都不被允許,過于復雜的、富有創造性和想象力的答案(比如“某人病危,在臨死前結婚和立遺囑”)也被認為是不可接受的。
Gould:Terman also included this item from Binet's original: "My neighbor has been having queer visitors. First a doctor came to his house, then a lawyer, then a minister. What do you think happened there?" Terman permitted little latitude beyond "a death," though he did allow "a marriage" from a boy he described as "an enlightened young eugenist" who replied that the doctor came to see if the partners were fit, the lawyer to arrange, and the minister to tie the knot. He did not accept the combination "divorce and remarriage," though he reports that a colleague in Reno, Nevada, had found the response "very, very common." He also did not permit plausible but uncomplicated solutions (a dinner, or an entertainment), or such original responses as: "someone is dying and is getting married and making his will before he dies." (206頁)
難道創造性和想象力不被算是智力?這正是智商學派遭受到的批評中最致命的一點:什么是智力?智力是極其復雜的現象,不論是從科學的角度還是從社會的角度,都沒有人能對智力下一個能被學術界公認的、恰當的定義,更沒有人能夠提出一個關于智力的理論解釋極其多樣的與智力有關的種種現象。
有些人有很強的分析、推理能力,卻缺乏想象力;有些人數學能力很差,但是語言能力很強;有些人言語遲鈍,但是思維反應敏捷;有些人學習能力不強,但是卻善于處理社會關系……如何能夠客觀地判定這些具有不同的能力的人的智力高低?又如何能夠對具有豐富的內容的智力做線性的數量排列?許多學者把智力定義為學習能力,但是學什么呢?數學、語言、圖像識別、音樂、繪畫、處理人際關系還是野外生存能力?智商測試以及當代其他學習能力測試所測量的,只是數學、推理和語匯能力,這最多只能說是智力的一小部分。但是智商學派卻認為智商測定的是正常人必有的普遍智力。
Dewdney:By a theory of intelligence, I mean a theory that defines intelligence as a quality that inheres to some degree in every compartment of human mental activity. At a minimum, such a theory would have to be capable of identifying intelligent behavior as observed in a variety of natural settings from social interactions to athletic performance to intellectual work. ……One might well add that some people seem to show more intelligence in one area than another. For example, some people are excellent at calculating social relationships, but are quite lost when it comes to weights and measures. Some people see analogies between things almost instantly, but seem unable to imagine new situations. (38頁)
在20世紀初,英國統計學家斯皮爾曼(Charles Spearman)為了分析智力測試的結果,發明了因子分析法。他發現,人們在回答不同的智力測試時,其得分具有相關性,即在某一套智力測試得分高的人,在另一套智力測試中也傾向于得分高,反之亦然。這些不同的智力測試的結果是不是存在一個共同因子呢?他用因子分析法進行分析,發現的確存在一個相關因子,他稱之為g,代表普遍智力。由于他已認定人的智力具有天生的“普遍因素”,便認為這個抽象的g真的是測量了普遍智力。
Dewdney:About the time that Binet was commissioned by the French Ministry of Education to compose his famous test, English statistician Charles Spearman invented factor analysis, a technique for teasing out underlying uniformities in large numbers of correlations. (34 頁)
Dewdney:When examining the data of IQ tests, Spearman was struck by the high degree of correlation between scores achieved by people who took two different tests. Was there some underlying factor common to the tests? To find out, he applied factor analysis and discovered that, indeed, there was. He called it g. Spearman meant this letter to stand for “general intelligence,” a perfect example of thingifying. (36頁)。
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但是我們知道,機理未明的相關性很可能是沒有意義的,由此而得的因子也不過是個抽象的、很可能同樣沒有具體意義的符號,它可能反映的是環境因素(某些人在各種智力測試中得分高,是因為有良好的營養、家庭、教育),可能反映的是遺傳因素(某些人在各種智力測試中得分高,是因為他們天生就聰明),可能反映的是環境因素和遺傳因素的共同作用,當然可能什么也反映不了。
【注:古爾德和道尼在書中花費了大量的篇幅討論相關分析的局限性,方舟子上面這段話就是根據它們“發揮”而來的。】
但是智商學派卻認定他們測定的是受遺傳因素決定的、天生的、不可改變的普遍智力。在40年代,美國社會學家史密特(Bernadine Schmidt)決定驗證這個說法。他在芝加哥選定了254名來自社會底層的12到14歲少年做為研究對象。這些少年都被認為低能,平均智商只有52。史密特對這些少年進行了三年的強化訓練,包括培養他們良好的學習習慣、生活作風、學術基本技能等。三年后重新對他們進行智商測試,發現他們的平均智商增加到 72,整整長了20分。五年后,史密特對他們再次做了測試,發現其平均智商繼續增加,達到了89,進入了正常人范圍,而且有四分之一的人的智商增長在50 分以上。這個實驗已說明了智商的高低并不是不可改變的,也就不可能完全由遺傳因素決定,而與后天的教育有關。
Dewdney:To the degree that IQ (as measured) turns out to be a highly plastic number, one cannot claim that it is inherited to any significant degree. Perhaps the most telling demonstration of the plasticity of IQ came in 1946 when Bernadine Schmidt, a young social scientist from Chicago, published a classic study in the journal Psychological Monographs. Schmidt's article, an unprecedented 144 pages long, described changes in the social, cultural, and intellectual behavior of 254 children of ages between twelve to fourteen. The children, who all came from disadvantaged or dysfunctional homes in the Chicago area, had all been classified as “feebleminded.” Their average IQ was 52, as compared with a nationwide average of about 100.
Dewdney:Schmidt conducted an intensive three-year training program that involved personal behavior, fundamental academic skills, manipulative arts, and good study habits. At the end of the period the students were tested again and proved to have an average IQ of 72, a full 20-point increase. Five years later, Schmidt tested her subjects again and found the average had increased to 89 with one-quarter of the students having gained more than 50 points. (42-43 頁)
那么智商在多大程度上是與遺傳因素有關的呢?在遺傳學上,用遺傳率來表示某項性狀受遺傳影響的程度。這是一個在0和1之間的數字。如果不同個體的性狀差異完全是由于基因差異引起的,遺傳率為1;如果完全是由環境因素導致的,則遺傳率為0。研究孿生子的性狀異同,是確定遺傳率的一個好辦法。一對同卵孿生子的基因組是完全相同的,如果他們從小被分開、在不同的家庭長大,那么他們某個性狀的相似程度,就被認為代表著該性狀受基因影響的程度。30多項孿生子研究(合計包括一萬多對孿生子)的結果表明,智商的遺傳率大約是0.5。但是這樣得到的遺傳率事實上指的是先天因素,而先天因素并不完全是由基因決定的,出生前母親體內環境也會對一個人的先天狀況有重要影響。由于孿生子是同時在同一個子宮發育的,他們共同的先天因素并不僅僅包括相同的基因的影響,還包括相同的母體環境。在考慮了孕期母體環境因素后,智商的遺傳率只有大約 0.34。
【注:這段話是方舟子根據1997年7月31日Nature上的一篇文章 “改編”的。只不過是,根據這篇文章,他們的統計結果是根據二百多項研究,總人數超過五萬。方舟子所說的“30多項孿生子研究(合計包括一萬多對孿生子)”不知來自何處。見:Devlin B, Daniels M, Roeder K. The heritability of IQ. Nature. 1997 Jul 31;388:468-71.】
可見環境和隨機因素對智商高低的影響其實是更加重要的。即使是受遺傳因素影響的那部分,也只是個統計結果,究竟有多少基因、什么樣的基因參與其中,作用機理如何,我們都一無所知。近來英國和美國聯合開展了一項研究,試圖尋找影響智商的基因。研究者將數百名實驗對象按其智商高、中、低分成幾組,并提取其 DNA加以分析。研究者選定了大約90種與神經功能有關的基因加以比較,看其中是否有與智商差異有關的。至今他們還沒有找到任何與智商高低相關的基因。如果有一天他們發現了某個基因的差異與智商的高低相關,我們是否可以說這就是智商基因甚至是智力基因呢?不能。
【注:這段話可能是在講述英國國王學院的科學家Robert Plomin 和美國科羅拉多大學科學家John C. DeFries的工作。見: Ghosh, P. Genius of genes. BBC News, 8 August, 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/850358.stm】
打一個比方,如果蓄電池壞了,就能影響汽車發動機的起動,但是我們并不能說蓄電池是發動機的“基因”,它甚至算不上是發動機的一部分。同樣,任何能影響神經元的構造、功能、代謝和營養的基因,都有可能影響人的智力活動,并成為影響智商的基因。有的這類基因與智力活動并無直接的關系。例如,有極少數人,大約在三、四十歲就會得阿茲海默癥(老年癡呆癥),他們如果做智商測驗,無疑得分會很低。他們得病的原因,是某個基因(例如app基因)發生突變,生產異常的淀粉狀蛋白。這些淀粉狀蛋白在大腦中沉積下來,就會抑制周圍的神經元的功能,從而導致癡呆癥。顯然,任何能夠引起整個神經元功能失常或死亡的基因都能導致智力缺陷,但是這些基因本身的正常功能不太可能與智力活動有任何的關系。
要而言之,智力是一種極其復雜的、多樣的現象,不可能做定量的線性測量。并不存在一種可以比較正常人的智力高低的“普遍智力”。所謂智商測試,測量的不過是數學、推理、語匯方面的學習能力。智商測試在學校教育中有其應用價值,但不宜夸大其作用,更不能產生它是在測量智力的誤解。智商的高低并非真正反映智力的高低。智商并不是完全由遺傳因素決定、不可改變的,環境因素的影響可能更為重要。影響智力的遺傳因素是極其復雜、多樣的。遺傳性的智力遲滯往往是由于與智力活動沒有關聯的基因突變導致的。任何能夠影響神經系統的活動的基因都有可能影響智力活動。找到某個特定的“智力基因”的可能性,可以說為零。
(作者葛莘,現定居美國南卡羅萊納州哥倫比亞市,擁有博士學位)
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