国产免费人成视频在线观看,国产极品粉嫩馒头一线天AV,国产精品欧美一区二区三区,亚洲 古典 另类 欧美 在线

首頁 > 文章 > 爭鳴 > 網友雜談

熔普世價值之劍,鑄中華復興之犁

肅慎書室主人 · 2011-10-12 · 來源:烏有之鄉
收藏( 評論() 字體: / /

鷹派中國近代史前言
熔普世價值之劍,鑄中華復興之犁

肅慎書室主人

  2008年,三川大震,舉國悲痛,美國女演員薩朗·斯通(Sharon Stone)幸災樂禍,公然聲稱這次傷亡慘重的地震是“報應”:
  Stone, 50, who was speaking to reporters at the Cannes film festival, criticised the Chinese government's actions in Tibet and directly linked them to the disaster: "I've been concerned about how should we deal with the Olympics, because they are not being nice to the Dalai Lama, who is a good friend of mine," she said. "And then all this earthquake and all this stuff happened, and I thought, is that karma - when you're not nice that the bad things happen to you?"
  某些華人偽自由主義者乘機拋出了“普世價值”這樣一個缺乏學術依據,沒有意涵界定的杜撰概念,由于投合了災難過后部分國人的宗教情感需求,并配合了美國利用經濟、軍事實力,在意識形態領域咄咄逼人,從而提高美國政治實力的“巧實力”(smart power)外交戰略,因而風行一時。

  當前中國思想界的混亂,集中體現于左右兩翼各執一偏,勢同水火。尤其在所有制、民主進程、全球化等問題上,聚訟紛紜。左右對立,首先是社會斷裂在思想領域的直觀反映。左右的本義是貧富:在歐洲,左右之分源于法國大革命,法王的三級會議里,教士和貴族居右,第三等級居左;在古代中國,貧民也多居于“閭左”。左右對立,還和中國思想者普遍缺乏科學精神有關。嚴復在《原強》中寫道:
  格致之事不先,偏頗之私未盡,生心害政,未有不貽誤家國者也。是故欲為群學,必先有事於諸學焉。不為數學、名學,則吾心不足以察不遁之理,必然之數也;不為力學、質學,則不足以審因果之相生,功效之互待也。名、數、力、質四者之學已治矣,然吾心之用,猶僅察於寡而或熒於紛,僅察於近而或迷於遠也,故必廣之以天、地二學焉。蓋於名、數知萬物之成法,於力、質得化機之殊能,尤必藉天、地二學,各合而觀之,而後有以見物化之成跡。名、數虛,於天、地徵其實,力、質分,於天、地會其全,夫而後有以知成物之悠久,雜物之博大,與夫化物之蕃變也。
  中國農耕帝國消解後,儒教失去了政治指導意義。近年來“新儒家”們的政治努力,荒誕滑稽,不值一哂。對儒教,也必須實行“政教分離”:一方面,國家鼓勵民間建立崇拜“上天”“孔子”的宗教會館,維系傳統,化民易俗;另一方面,國家必須對儒家思想中“天人感應”“親親”“無訟”等非近代的東西棄若敝屣。

  “普世價值”氣焰熏天,是歐美操縱中國事務的有力工具,但也逼迫國人努力求索近代以來西方文明致勝的關鍵所在。魯迅從日本“拿來”了“中國劣根性”(the inferiority of the Chinese),其文章經官方提倡,充斥教材,很多要求背誦。教師講解,累得口角流沫;學生筆錄,累得手肘生胝。六十年光陰過去了,所謂的國民性格不但全然沒有得到“療救”,反而變本加厲,愈演愈烈。這一“魯迅悖論”雄辯地證明,晚清以來的學人們由反思“器物層”,進而反思“制度層”,直到反思“文化層”,實屬妄自菲薄,自殘自虐。
  偉大的歷史學家斯塔夫里阿諾斯(Stavrianos)把近代以來歐洲政治革命的思想成果概括為自由主義(liberalism)、社會主義(socialism)和民族主義(nationalism)。由于這三種主義成效卓著,因而成為事實上的普世價值(universal values)。
  這三種主義——自由主義、社會主義和民族主義——是歐洲政治革命的主要成分。它們共同激勵著歐洲各民族越來越多的階層行動起來,并賦予這些階層以世界上任何地區都無法與之相比的推動力和凝聚力。這樣,政治革命就同科學革命和經濟革命一道對歐洲統治世界發揮了關鍵作用。當歐洲人開始向海外擴張時,他們遇到了統治者和被統治者之間關系不怎么和諧的一些社會。民眾的冷淡——他們缺乏對自己政府的認同感——可以解釋歐洲人為何能夠輕松地在一個又一個地區建立并維持他們的統治。
  These three creeds -- liberalism, socialism, and nationalism -- are the principal components of Europe's political revolution. Together they galvanized into action broader and broader strata of the peoples of Europe, giving them a dynamism and a cohesiveness unequaled in any other portion of the globe. In this way the political revolution, like the scientific and the economic revolutions, contributed vitally to Europe's world domination. When the Europeans began to expand overseas, they encountered societies where there was little rapport between rulers and ruled. The apathy of the masses -- their lack of identification with their governments -- explains why in region after region the Europeans were able to establish and to maintain their rule with little difficulty.

  “民族國家”較之“階級國家”和“帝國”,是更穩定的常態。哈佛大學約翰·肯尼迪政治學院教授斯蒂芬·沃爾特(Stephen M. Walt)解釋道:
  各個民族因為是在一個競爭的、有時又是危險的世界里求生,所以總是試圖維護其身份和文化價值觀。很多例子說明,最好的辦法就是建立自己的國家,這是因為那些沒有自己國家的種族或民族常常會被征服、被融合和被同化。
  同樣,現代的國家也有很強的動機去推動民族的統一換句話說就是培育民族主義——因為假使國家擁有一群忠誠而又團結的人愿意為國犧牲,那么國家的實力和應對外部威脅的能力就會大大增強。總之,在一個國際政治派別爭奪激烈的世界里,民族渴望擁有自己的國家,國家渴望在民眾中培養共同的民族身份。這兩種動力合起來就形成了一種長期的趨勢,造就了越來越多的獨立的民族國家。(http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/15/the_enduring_power_of_nationalism?page=full
  在民族國家中,政權成為“公權力”,滿足了民族全體自發的秩序需求。邁克爾·曼(Michael Mann)寫道:
  在追逐其目標的過程中,人類加入了彼此合作的、集體的權力關系。但在落實集體目標的過程中,社會組織和勞動分工確立了。組織和職能分工具有一種導向個體性權力的內在趨勢,這種趨勢是源于管理和協調的需要。勞動分工是靠不住的:盡管它涉及各種職能的專門化,但還是在上者監督和指導全體。那些處于監督和協調地位的人享有對池人的巨大組織優勢。互動和通訊網絡實際上是以他們的作用為中心,就像在每家現代公司都有的組織圖中很容易看到的東西一樣。這種圖表允許在上者控制整個組織,并且阻止在下者分享這種控制。它使那些在上者能夠為了落實集體目標而啟動機構。盡管任何人都可能拒絕服從,但可能缺少確立替換機構以落實其目標的機會。
  In pursuit of their goals, humans enter into cooperative, collective power relations with one another. But in implementing collective goals, social organization and a division of labor are set up. Organization and division of function carry an inherent tendency to distributive power, deriving from supervision and coordination. For the division of labor is deceptive: Although it involves specialization of function at all levels, the top overlooks and directs the whole. Those who occupy supervisory and coordinating positions have an immense organizational superiority over the others. The interaction and communication networks actually center on their function, as can be seen easily enough in the organization chart possessed by every modern firm. The chart allows superiors to control the entire organization, and it prevents those at the bottom from sharing in this control. It enables those at the top to set in motion machinery for implementing collective goals. Though anyone can refuse to obey, opportunities are probably lacking for establishing alternative machinery for implementing their goals.
  司馬遷也朦朧意識到人類對秩序的自發追求:“洋洋美德乎!宰制萬物,役使群眾,豈人力也哉?”(美好盛大是禮的優良品格啊!主宰統制天地萬物,奴役驅使廣大群眾,難道是人的強力所能做到的嗎?)
  “民族國家”中的某一群體,只可以影響政權,而不可以俘獲政權。否則月滿則虧,器盈而攲,自蹈兇危敗亡。即使不發生內潰,也會無力抵御外部競爭。茲舉正反數例例:
  [例一,春秋衛國]冬十二月,狄人伐衛。衛懿公好鶴,鶴有乘軒者。將戰,國人受甲者皆曰:“使鶴,鶴實有祿位,余焉能戰!” (左傳•閔公二年,最后衛國兵敗國“滅”。)
  [例二,早期羅馬]斗爭開始于公元前5世紀初。這時羅馬不僅在北方有強敵伊達拉里亞人和高盧人,而且和鄰近的埃魁人、沃爾斯奇人也常有戰事。平民利用外敵壓境為發動斗爭的機會,往往攜帶武裝離開羅馬,拒不應敵。這種斗爭方式稱為“撤離”運動。第一次撤離運動相傳發生于公元前494年。羅馬因平民離去而兵力銳減,生產停滯,貴族的田莊還遭到破壞。軍事和經濟上的不利形勢,迫使貴族對平民讓步。(世界通史)
  [例三,曹劌論戰]問:“何以戰?”公曰:“衣食所安,弗敢專也,必以分人。”對曰:“小惠未遍,民弗從也。”公曰:“犧牲玉帛,弗敢加也,必以信。”對曰:“小信未孚,神弗福也。”公曰:“小大之獄,雖不能察,必以情。”對曰:“忠之屬也,可以一戰。戰則請從。”(左傳•莊公十年,魯君因為執行民族國家“法”的職能而保住權力)
  自由主義、社會主義和民族主義,都應該通過影響而非壟斷政權的方式,來干預現實。

  自由主義的持有主體應該是資產階級。斯塔夫里阿諾斯寫道:
  在中世紀初期西歐存在著三個界限分明的社會集團:組成軍事貴族階層的貴族、構成教會和知識顯貴集團的教士和以自己的勞動供養以上兩個階級的農民。隨著商業的發展,這種狀況由于一個新成分即城市資產階級的出現而開始改變。隨著這一階級在財富和人數上的增長,它對各封建階層的特權和妨礙自由市場經濟發展的許多限制變得日益不滿。于是它就與民族君主政權結成了一個互惠的聯盟:國王們從資產階級那里獲得財政支援,以維護其對各封建階層的權威,而資產階級則從整個王國建立法律和秩序這一點中獲益。這種聯盟一直持續到不斷成長的中產階級感到厭煩時為止——他們為了擺脫王室對商業的種種限制,擺脫日漸增加的賦稅,擺脫對宗教信仰自由的種種限制,轉而起來反對國王。中產階級的這些目標是英國革命、美國革命和法國革命中的重要因素,而這些革命的成功也意味著古典自由主義——為資產階級的利益和目標提供了合理解釋的新的意識形態——的成功。在這一意義上,自由主義也許可被稱為不斷壯大的中產階級打算借以獲得它所指望得到的利益和權力的特殊綱領。
  During the early medieva1 period, there were three well-defined social groups in western Europe: the nobility, who constituted a military aristocracy; the clergy, who formed an ecclesiastical and intellectual elite; and the peasants, who labored to support the two upper classes. With the development of commerce, the profile of the medieva1 social order began gradually to change with the appearance of a new element, the urban bourgeoisie. As this class grew in wealth and numbers, it became more and more discontented with the special privileges of the feudal orders and with the numerous restrictions that hampered the development of a free-market economy. Accordingly, the bourgeoisie made a mutually beneficial alliance with the national monarchies. The kings obtained financial support from the bourgeoisie and so were able to assert their authority over the feudal orders. The bourgeoisie in return profited from the establishment of law and order throughout the royal domains. The alliance lasted until it became irksome for the constantly growing middle class. Then the middle class turned against the kings to free itself from royal restrictions on commerce, from a growing burden of taxation, and from restraints on religious freedom. These objectives were important factors in the English, American, and French revolutions. The success of these revolutions also meant the success of classical liberalism -- the new ideology that provided a rationalization for bourgeois interests and objectives. In this sense, liberalism may be defined as the particular program by which the growing middle class proposed to get for itself the benefits and control it was aiming for.
  中國農耕帝國消解于晚清的太平天國戰爭,為了在四海鼎沸、八國交侵的險惡局面中重建秩序,極權主義成為中國的必然選擇。只有極權主義,才能以戰去戰,整合松懈渙散的中國百姓;只有權權主義,才能以毒攻毒,遏制侵略俘獲的狼子野心。極權主義不僅僅是獨裁,更是獨裁者對軍事權力、政治權力、經濟權力、意識形態權力的全方位掌握;極權主義在大陸徹底鏟除了本不壯大的資產階級。因而,中國的自由主義,當前存在著主體缺失的痼疾,其持有者多為知識分子。中國知識分子,沒有經過近代經濟革命、科技革命和政治革命的洗禮,其思想作風類似于農耕帝國的古典“士大夫”:“四民之中,各有生計,農工自食其力者也,商賈各以其贏以易食者也,士亦挾其長傭書授徒以易食者也。”(《生計篇》,洪亮吉)也類似于歐洲“構成教會和知識顯貴集團的教士”(the clergy, who formed an ecclesiastical and intellectual elite)。
  中國“準自由主義”者,懵懂于中外歷史與中外現實,欠缺政治學素養,盲信西方的偽善與詭辯,無視西方的貪婪與血腥,刻意營造牧歌式的西方文明觀。聊舉他們對美國開國元勛喬治·華盛頓的認識迷誤,以斥其陋。在美國“華盛頓紀念碑”上,有一方中國清代咸豐三年贈送的刻石,鐫文為:
  欽命福建巡撫部院大中丞徐繼畬所著《瀛環志略》曰,“按,華盛頓,異人也。起事勇於勝廣,割據雄於曹劉。既已提三尺劍,開疆萬里,乃不僭位號,不傳子孫,而創為推舉之法,幾於天下為公,骎骎乎三代之遺意。其治國崇讓善俗,不尚武功,亦迥與諸國異。余嘗見其畫像,氣貌雄毅絕倫。嗚呼!可不謂人杰矣哉。”“米利堅合眾國以為國,幅員萬里,不設王侯之號,不循世及之規,公器付之公論,創古今未有之局,一何奇也!泰西古今人物,能不以華盛頓為稱首哉!” 
  把合眾國的開創歸因為個人品德,是多么無識而危險!布爾斯廷的敘述有助于理解為什么華盛頓不稱王稱帝——因為他沒有常備軍:
  甚至華盛頓的耐心也有限度。但是,由于地方的自大勢難克服,他便學著同這種情緒共處,并設法在共同的事業中利用它。華盛頓在1776年底寫道:“自從我從事軍務以來,我一直努力削弱各種地方情感和地區(即州)差別,用美利堅這個更大的名字統稱一切。但我發現要克服偏見是不可能的。在新的建制下,我看最好是激起一種競爭的情緒。為此,最好由各州提出——雖然不是任命——各州旅長的人選。”1780年,他答復大陸會議就晉升和軍階問題提出的質詢時說:“在任何情況下,如果我們的軍隊是一支軍隊或十三支聯合起來共同防御的軍隊,那末解決你們的問題就沒有困難。可是我們僅僅偶爾是這樣。如果我說我們有時既不是一支軍隊也不是十三支軍隊,而是兩者的棍合,我想也不會有多大的錯誤。” (美國人——殖民地歷程,丹尼爾·J·布爾斯廷,上海譯文出版社,1997)
  Even Washington''s patience wore thin; but since local prides were not to be overcome, he learned to live with them and somehow to harness them in the common cause. "I have labored, ever since I have been in the service," Washington wrote at the end of 1776, "to discourage all kinds of local attachments and distinctions of country [i.e. of State], denominating the whole by the greater name of American, but I have found it impossible to overcome prejudices; and, under the new establishment, I conceive it best to stir up an emulation; in order to do which would it not be better for each State to furnish, though not to appoint, their own brigadiers?" In 1780, to the inquiries of the Congress about his problems of promotion and rank, he replied: "If in all cases ours was one army, or thirteen armies allied for the common defence, there would be no difficulty in solving your question; but we are occasionally both, and I should not be much out if I were to say, that we are sometimes neither, but a compound of both" (The American The Colonial Experience, Daniel J Boorstin)
  短期入伍(有時少到只有三個月)的規定,表明了對職業常備軍的普遍擔心和戰爭勝利后軍隊將成為贅疣的假設。華盛頓多次抱怨說問題癥結就在這里。例如,他在從位于帕塞伊克附近的司令部寫給一些州的一封通告(1780年10月18日)中說:
  我篤信,戰爭的持久和我們迄今所經歷的極大部分不幸與混亂,主要應歸答于短期服役的規定。……一支人數不多的精干的部隊,能具備軍事活動所必要的紀律而組成常備軍的建制,就能夠抵抗敵人。它無可比擬地要比一大幫民兵好。民兵在某些時期里不在戰場,而是在走向戰場和離開戰場的途中。由于缺乏堅韌性是所有民兵的特征,也由于對民兵不能行使強制手段,因而要使絕大部分民兵留下繼續服役,甚至只服滿他們被征召時原定的服役期,也總是行不通的。而且,服役期通常太短,以致我們有一大部分時間要養兩套人,給兩套人的薪餉,一套是正在前往軍隊的人,另一套是正在離開軍隊的人。(美國人——殖民地歷程,丹尼爾·J·布爾斯廷,上海譯文出版社,1997)
  Short-term enlistments (sometimes for as little as three months) expressed both the widespread fear of a professional standing army and the assumption that an army would be superfluous the day after the war was won. Washington repeatedly complained that this was the core of his problem. For example, in a circular (Oct. 18, 1780) to the several States from his headquarters near Passaic, he said:
  I am religiously persuaded that the duration of the war, and the greatest part of the Misfortunes, and perplexities we have hitherto experienced, are chiefly to be attributed to temporary inlistments. ... A moderate, compact force, on a permanent establishment capable of acquiring the discipline essential to military operations, would have been able to make head against the Enemy, without comparison better than the throngs of Militia, which have been at certain periods not in the feild, but on their way to, and from the feild: for from that want of perseverance which characterises all Militia, and of that coercion which cannot be exercised upon them it has always been found impracticable to detain the greatest part of them in service even for the term, for which they have been called out; and this has been commonly so short, that we have had a great proportion of the time, two sets of men to feed and pay, one coming to the Army, and the other going from it. (The American The Colonial Experience, Daniel J Boorstin)
  甚至首開中國西學先河的嚴復,晚年也震驚于歐戰,對西方文明有了更清醒的認識:“不佞垂老,親見脂那七年之民國與歐羅巴四年亙古未有之血戰,覺彼族三百年之進化,只做到‘利己殺人,寡廉鮮恥’八個字。回觀孔孟之道,真量同天地,澤被寰區。此不獨吾言為然,即泰西有思想人亦漸覺其為如此矣。”(《與熊純如書》(七十五),《嚴復集》第3冊第692頁)
  由于中國“準自由主義者”們對西方“拋來”的思潮盲從盲信,眾所周知,已經在金融領域給中國造成浩大災難。聊舉被某些人奉為圭臬的“諾貝爾經濟學獎”,以斥其非。
  “諾貝爾經濟學獎”,2006年至今其全稱是“瑞典國家銀行紀念阿爾弗雷德·諾貝爾經濟學獎”(The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel)此獎項并不屬于諾貝爾遺囑中所提到的五大獎勵領域之一,而是由瑞典國家銀行在1968年為紀念諾貝爾而增設的。由于獲獎者普遍具有反社會主義、反民族主義傾向,也由于經濟學并非科學,所以該獎項始終飽受批評和質疑。諾貝爾侄孫彼得·諾貝爾稱其為“占諾貝爾之巢的布谷鳥”:“The Bank of Sweden, which set up this prize, is like a cuckoo that laid its egg in the nest of another decent bird, the Nobel Prize.”(http://www.hazelhenderson.com/editorials/cuckoos_egg_in_nobel_prize_nest.html)
  中國“準自由主義”者們偏聽偏信西方的某些經濟學派,所以盲目反對一切國有制,而不愿紆尊降貴讀一讀《私有化的局限》;盲目宣揚全球化,而不愿讀一讀《一個經濟殺手的自白》;盲目反對斯大林的“五年計劃”,而不愿承認其在蘇聯衛國保種戰爭中的偉大意義;盲目歡呼蘇聯解體,而不愿正視大英帝國的持續坍縮;盲目鼓吹自私自利的外部效用,而不愿反思亞當·斯密曾因此反對有限責任股份公司……  
  Adam Smith, the father of economics and the patron saint of  freemarket capitalism, opposed limited liability on these grounds. He famously said that the ‘directors of [joint stock] companies … being the managers rather of other people’s money than of their own, it cannot well be expected that they would watch over it with the same anxious vigilance with which the partners in a private copartnery [i.e., partnership, which demands unlimited liability] frequently watch over their own’. (from An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations)

  社會主義的持有主體應該是工人階級。斯塔夫里阿諾斯寫道:
  但是信奉自由主義的中產階級轉過來卻又受到了來自城市工人即無產階級的挑戰。隨著18世紀后期工業革命的到來,居住在擁擠城市中的工人的階級意識日益覺醒。他們越來越感到自己的利益與雇主的利益并不相同,他們的境遇只有通過聯合行動才能得到改善。因而工人們,或者更確切地說,領導工人的知識分子,發展起了一種新的意識形態——社會主義。它直接向資產階級的自由主義挑戰,不僅提倡政治改革,同時還要求進行社會變革和經濟變革。不久我們就將看到,社會主義在19世紀后期成為歐洲的一種主要力量,而在20世紀它則成為世界的主要力量。
  The middle class, with its creed of liberalism, was challenged in turn by the urban workers, or proletariat. With the industrial revolution of the late eighteenth century, the workers in the crowded cities became increasingly class conscious. More and more they felt that their interests were not identical to those of their employers, and that their situation could be improved only by combined action on their part. So the workers, or rather the intellectuals who led them, developed a new ideology, socialism. Socialism directly challenged the liberalism of the bourgeoisie, calling for social and economic change as well as for political reform. We shall see that socialism was to become a major force in European affairs in the late nineteenth century and in world affairs in the twentieth.
  工人階級反擊資產階級唯利是圖的貪婪放縱,積極參加企業管理,有益于發展生產力。劍橋大學韓裔教授張夏準寫道:
  Cutting jobs may increase productivity in the short run, but may have negative long-term consequences. Having fewer workers means increased work intensity, which makes workers tired and more prone to mistakes, lowering product quality and thus a company’s reputation. More importantly, the heightened insecurity, coming from the constant threat of job cuts, discourages workers from investing in acquiring company-specific skills, eroding the company’s productive potential.
  ...they just need to sell their shares, if necessary at a slight loss, as long as they are smart enough not to stick to a lost cause for too long. In contrast, it is more difficult for other stakeholders, such as workers and suppliers, to exit the company and find another engagement, because they are likely to have accumulated skills and capital equipment (in the case of the suppliers) that are specific to the companies they do business with. Therefore, they have a greater stake in the long-run viability of the company than most shareholders.
  社會主義者張宏良先生,積極宣傳澤東時代“兩參一改三結合”等優秀經濟制度,揭露抨擊私有化時代以來的社會潰敗,聲名卓著。然而集結于“烏有之鄉”網站的中國社會主義者們重人事而輕制度,無視產權理念,缺乏思想創新,因而對政權的影響極為有限。歐美的社會主義者,熱衷福利,淡漠政治,坐視社會貧富分化,國家債臺高筑。尤為嚴峻的是,人口老齡化可能擊碎社會主義者的大多數信念。

  農耕帝國時期,絕少民族主義觀念。韓愈在《原道》中寫道:“孔子之作《春秋》也,諸侯用夷禮,則夷之;進於中國,則中國之。”漢武帝時將軍李陵投降匈奴,人們同情他的“風波一失所,各在天一隅”,而不苛責以民族大義:
  足下又云:“漢與功臣不薄。”子為漢臣,安得不云爾乎!昔蕭、樊囚縶,韓、彭菹醢,晁錯受戮,周、魏見辜,其余佐命立功之士,賈誼、亞夫之徒,皆信命世之才,抱將相之具,而受小人之讒,并受禍敗之辱,卒使懷才受謗,能不得展。彼二子之遐舉,誰不為之痛心哉!陵先將軍,功略蓋天地,義勇冠三軍,徒失貴臣之意,剄身絕域之表,此功臣義士所以負戟而長嘆者也。何謂不薄哉! (傳《李陵答蘇武書》)
  嚴復在《原強》中,更說出了一些漢奸不得已的苦衷:
  曩甲午之辦海防也,水底碰雷與開花彈子,有以鐵滓沙泥代火藥者,洋報議論,謂吾民以數金錙銖之利,雖使其國破軍殺將失地喪師不顧,則中國今日之敗衂,他日之危亡,不可謂為不幸矣。此其事足使聞者發指,顧何待言!然諸君亦嘗循其本而為求其所以然之故與?蓋自秦以降,為治雖有寬苛之異,而大抵皆以奴虜待吾民。雖有原省,原省此奴虜而己矣;雖有燠咻,燠咻此奴虜而己矣。夫上既以奴虜待民,則民亦以奴虜自待。夫奴虜之於主人,特形劫勢禁,無可如何已耳,非心悅誠服,有愛於其國與主而共保持之也。故使形勢可恃,國法尚行,則齅靴剺面,胡天胡帝,揚其上於至高,抑其己於至卑,皆勸為之;一旦形勢既去,法所不行,則獨知有利而已矣,共起而挺之,又其所也,復何怪乎!
  且彼西洋所以能使其民皆若有深私至愛於其國若主,而赴公戰如私仇者,則亦有道矣。法令始於下院,是民各奉其所自主之約而非率上之制也;宰相以下,皆由一國所推擇,是官者,民之所設以釐百工,而非徒以尊奉仰戴者也,撫我虐我,皆非所論者矣。出賦以庀工,無異自營其田宅;趨死以殺敵,無異自衛其室家。吾每聞英之人言英,法之人言法,以至各國之人之言其生之國土,聞其名字,若我曹聞其父母之名,皆肫摯固結,若有無窮之愛也者,此其故何哉?無他,私之以為己有而已矣。是故居今之日,欲進吾民之德,於以同力合志,聯一氣而御外仇,則非有道焉使各私中國不可也。顧處士曰:“民不能無私也,圣人之制治也,在合天下之私以為公。”然則使各私中國奈何?曰,設議院於京師而令天下郡縣各公舉其守宰。是道也,欲民之忠愛必由此,欲教化之興必由此,欲地利之盡必由此,欲道路之辟商務之興必由此,欲民各束身自好而爭濯磨於善必由此。
  但當今必須明確,漢奸國賊,即使情理可恕,利益斷難相容!漢奸行為是典型的“集體謬誤”,即,少數人出賣團體,肯定獲利;但人人叛賣,有害無益。獲利的少數人,如果不能逃避異鄉,最終也難免玉石俱焚。顯然,民族主義,才是不能“適彼樂土”的人們之共同庇護所。蔣廷黻在《中國近代史》中,把西洋成功部分地歸因于民族主義:
  西洋在中古的政治局面很像中國的春秋時代,文藝復興以后的局面很像我們的戰國時代。在列強爭雄的生活中,西洋人養成了熱烈的愛國心,深刻的民族觀念;我們則死守著家族觀念和家鄉觀念。所以在十九世紀初年,西洋的國家雖小,然團結有如鐵石之固;我們的國家雖大,然如一盤散沙,毫無力量。
  斯塔夫里阿諾斯把泱泱印度淪為英國殖民地,歸因于民族主義缺失:
  印度也許是一個可以說明為何統治者和被統治者的不和睦會造成社會虛弱的突出的例子。印度當時仍然是一個迥然相異的民族、宗教以及相沖突的地區集團的集合體,所以它很容易成為犧牲品。在一個半世紀里,這塊擁有千百萬人口、燦爛文明和古老歷史傳統的巨大的印度次大陸一直被為數很少的英國軍人和官員不太費力地統治著。當1857年反對英國統治的起義爆發時,不僅英國軍隊,而且印度人也前去鎮壓。倫敦《泰晤士報》的記者驚訝地報道了這一事實:“我對在我周圍戰爭潮流中的這一巨大支流越來越感到驚異。所有的男人、婦女和孩子都興高采烈地涌向勒克瑙,去幫助歐洲人制服他們的兄弟。”
  India is perhaps the leading example of the extent to which lack of rapport between rulers and ruled made societies vulnerable. India was a society that had remained a disparate collection of peoples, religions, and conflicting provincial loyalties, and so it was easy prey. For over a century and a half, the great Indian subcontinent, with its teeming millions, its splendid civilization, and its ancient historical traditions, was ruled with little difficulty by a comparative handful of British officers and officials. When the mutiny against British rule broke out in 1857, it was put down not only by British troops, but also by Indian troops. The correspondent of the London Times reported this fact with astonishment: "I looked with ever-growing wonder on the vast tributary of the tide of war which was running around and before me. All these men, women and children, with high delight were pouring towards Lucknow to aid the Feringhee [Europeans] to overcome their brethren."
  中國的某些學人,民族主義淡薄,毫無是非觀念。例如,1637年,約翰·威德爾(John Weddell)船隊闖入珠江口,搶占虎門要塞,殘殺大明臣民,“端木賜香”在《那一次,我們挨打了:中英第一次鴉片戰爭全景解讀》書中敘述此事,全用欽慕語氣,并且評論道:“英國人把中國當西施了,自是不錯,但中國人從未把英國人看作是范蠡。相反,他們把英國人看作是紅毛鬼了。英國如此摸中國,感覺是在向它表示自己的好感;中國如此被摸,感覺對方是在向自己耍流氓。雙方的認識與感覺,絕不在一個層面上!”該書談英則贊媚,述華必嘲辱,淺薄輕浮,顛倒黑白,令人不忍卒讀。

  自由主義、社會主義和民族主義,三者并駕齊驅,彼此相反相成。如社會主義,既制約了自由主義向非人道反民族方向滋長,也有助于打破“馬克思式剩余過剩”,從而壯大了自由主義。在某個時期內,某種主義可能居于上風。但其積弊仍將導致另外某種主義重新抬頭。這種思潮的循環,可以類比中國先秦時期的文質循環:
  夏之政忠。忠之敝,小人以野,故殷人承之以敬。敬之敝,小人以鬼,故周人承之以文。文之敝,小人以僿,故救僿莫若以忠。三王之道若循環,終而復始。(見《史記·高祖本紀》,意為:夏朝的政治奉行忠厚。忠厚的弊端,是使百姓粗野缺乏禮節,所以殷朝承續夏政而奉行恭敬。恭敬的弊端,是使百姓相信鬼神,所以周朝承續殷政而奉行禮儀。禮儀的弊端,是使百姓講究文飾而情薄不誠信,所以解救不誠信的弊端莫如奉行忠厚。三王的治國之道如同循環往復,終而復始。)
  中國近代以來的英才賢哲,提出許多政治理念,繽紛絢爛,然而總不出自由主義、社會主義和民族主義這“三原色”。
  如孫文的三民主義,其民主主義,體現了資產階級的參政要求,可歸附于自由主義;其民生主義,可歸附于社會主義及自由主義;其民族主義,最初的主體是漢族而非中華民族,盡管很快修正為“五族共和”,仍然在日本竊踞東北進程中起了某些消極作用。
  如新民主主義,實質就是民族資本主義,民主政權中人員的分配,共產黨員大體占三分之一,左派進步分子大體占三分之一,中間分子和其他分子大體占三分之一。
  如三個代表思想,代表先進生產力,可歸附為自由主義;代表最廣大人民群眾的最根本利益,可歸附為社會主義;代表先進文化,可歸附為民族主義。

  能彼特最簡民主定義認為,民主乃定期的公推直選。亨廷頓認為,民主只是政治擴大化的一種現象,而不具有元價值。如果政治參與過甚,甚至可能導致內潰。事實上,美國的立國基礎是自由主義而非民主主義,美國的開國元勛,大多對民主頗有微辭。美國第二任總統約翰·亞當斯(John Adams)在1797年就職演說中說道:
  如果任何偏見或外來事物影響到我們純潔、自由、公正和獨立的選舉,使我們竟忽略了它會危害我們的自由,那么我們就是在上述那些令人高興的見解中欺騙了自己。如果選舉是以一人一票的多數票來決定勝負,那么一個政黨便可能通過計謀或賄賂等不當手段獲取勝利,那么這樣選舉出來的政府則可能成為政黨為達到一黨私利,而不是國家為了全國利益所做出的選擇。假使其他國家的勢力利用諂媚脅迫、欺詐暴力、陰謀賄賂等伎倆在這個一人一票的選舉中獲勝,那么這個政府就不是由美國人民選出的,而是外國的選擇。那時我們將會淪為異邦統治,而不是由我們全體人民統治。正直的人們將會感覺到,在這種情況下選舉就與賭博相差無幾了。
  In the midst of these pleasing ideas we should be unfaithful to ourselves if we should ever lose sight of the danger to our liberties if anything partial or extraneous should infect the purity of our free, fair, virtuous, and independent elections. If an election is to be determined by a majority of a single vote, and that can be procured by a party through artifice or corruption, the Government may be the choice of a party for its own ends, not of the nation for the national good. If that solitary suffrage can be obtained by foreign nations by flattery or menaces, by fraud or violence, by terror, intrigue, or venality, the Government may not be the choice of the American people, but of foreign nations. It may be foreign nations who govern us, and not we, the people, who govern ourselves; and candid men will acknowledge that in such cases choice would have little advantage to boast of over lot or chance.
  民主是個好技術,完全可以在選民、央地、權限等方面百花齊放。

(20111012)

 

附一:歐洲的政治革命(Stavrianos)

  19世紀歐洲對世界的支配不僅建立在其工業革命和科學革命的基礎上,政治革命也構成其基礎之一。政治革命的實質是,它終結了人類分成統治者和被統治者是由神注定的這種觀念。人們不再認為政治高于人民,也不再認為人民處于政府之下。政治革命有史以來第一次在一個比城邦更大的規模上顯示出,政治和人民是密不可分的——民眾已覺醒并行動起來,不僅參與了政治,而且將此視為自己固有的權利。在本章中,我們將考察歐洲政治革命的一般情形,英國革命、美國革命和法國革命的起因以及19世紀歐洲政治革命的各種表現形式及其世界性影響。

一、政治革命的格局
  同經濟革命一樣,政治革命也是分為幾個階段發展起來的。如前所述,經濟革命始于英國,而后擴展到歐洲大陸和美國,最后則擴展到世界其他地區。政治革命也一樣:17世紀的英國革命標志著其開端,隨后的美國革命和法國革命標志著其進一步發展,接著它在19世紀影響了整個歐洲,最后它則在20世紀席卷了整個世界。
  經濟革命和政治革命的并行發展并不是偶然的,實際上這兩次革命息息相關。而且在很大程度上可以說是經濟革命決定著政治革命,因為它產生了一個有新利益、有使其利益合理化的新意識形態的新階級。其實我們只要簡要地追溯一下經濟革命和政治革命的一般過程,就會對這一點看得很清楚。
  在中世紀初期西歐存在著三個界限分明的社會集團:組成軍事貴族階層的貴族、構成教會和知識顯貴集團的教士和以自己的勞動供養以上兩個階級的農民。隨著商業的發展,這種狀況由于一個新成分即城市資產階級的出現而開始改變。隨著這一階級在財富和人數上的增長,它對各封建階層的特權和妨礙自由市場經濟發展的許多限制變得日益不滿。于是它就與民族君主政權結成了一個互惠的聯盟:國王們從資產階級那里獲得財政支援,以維護其對各封建階層的權威,而資產階級則從整個王國建立法律和秩序這一點中獲益。這種聯盟一直持續到不斷成長的中產階級感到厭煩時為止——他們為了擺脫王室對商業的種種限制,擺脫日漸增加的賦稅,擺脫對宗教信仰自由的種種限制,轉而起來反對國王。中產階級的這些目標是英國革命、美國革命和法國革命中的重要因素,而這些革命的成功也意味著古典自由主義——為資產階級的利益和目標提供了合理解釋的新的意識形態——的成功。在這一意義上,自由主義也許可被稱為不斷壯大的中產階級打算借以獲得它所指望得到的利益和權力的特殊綱領。
  但是信奉自由主義的中產階級轉過來卻又受到了來自城市工人即無產階級的挑戰。隨著18世紀后期工業革命的到來,居住在擁擠城市中的工人的階級意識日益覺醒。他們越來越感到自己的利益與雇主的利益并不相同,他們的境遇只有通過聯合行動才能得到改善。因而工人們,或者更確切地說,領導工人的知識分子,發展起了一種新的意識形態——社會主義。它直接向資產階級的自由主義挑戰,不僅提倡政治改革,同時還要求進行社會變革和經濟變革。不久我們就將看到,社會主義在19世紀后期成為歐洲的一種主要力量,而在20世紀它則成為世界的主要力量。
  賦予歐洲政治革命動力的不僅有自由主義和社會主義這些充滿活力的信念,還有民族主義——一種影響到各個階級并能動員起廣大人民群眾的意識形態。人們在傳統上首先效忠的一向是地區或教會,而到近代初期效忠的對象則擴大到了新的民族君主身上。但是從英國革命開始,特別是在法國革命期間,越來越多的歐洲人都效忠于新的民族事業。民族教會、民族王朝、民族軍隊和民族教育制度相繼興起——所有這一切結合起來就把從前公爵領地的屬民、封建農奴和城市市民改變成了涵蓋一切的民族。新的民族主義在19世紀里從其發源地西歐傳播到整個歐洲大陸,而到了20世紀它又成為促使全世界殖民地民族覺醒的推動力量。
  這三種主義——自由主義、社會主義和民族主義——是歐洲政治革命的主要成分。它們共同激勵著歐洲各民族越來越多的階層行動起來,并賦予這些階層以世界上任何地區都無法與之相比的推動力和凝聚力。這樣,政治革命就同科學革命和經濟革命一道對歐洲統治世界發揮了關鍵作用。當歐洲人開始向海外擴張時,他們遇到了統治者和被統治者之間關系不怎么和諧的一些社會。民眾的冷淡——他們缺乏對自己政府的認同感——可以解釋歐洲人為何能夠輕松地在一個又一個地區建立并維持他們的統治。印度也許是一個可以說明為何統治者和被統治者的不和睦會造成社會虛弱的突出的例子。印度當時仍然是一個迥然相異的民族、宗教以及相沖突的地區集團的集合體,所以它很容易成為犧牲品。在一個半世紀里,這塊擁有千百萬人口、燦爛文明和古老歷史傳統的巨大的印度次大陸一直被為數很少的英國軍人和官員不太費力地統治著。當1857年反對英國統治的起義爆發時,不僅英國軍隊,而且印度人也前去鎮壓。倫敦《泰晤士報》的記者驚訝地報道了這一事實:“我對在我周圍戰爭潮流中的這一巨大支流越來越感到驚異。所有的男人、婦女和孩子都興高采烈地涌向勒克瑙,去幫助歐洲人制服他們的兄弟。”
  但是,歐洲的政治控制和經濟控制必然意味著歐洲政治思想的傳播。正如整個世界都曾感受過史蒂芬孫的機車、富爾頓的汽船和加特林的機槍的影響一樣,它也感受到了《獨立宣言》、《人權和公民權宣言》(簡稱《人權宣言》)和《共產黨宣言》的影響。那些已經成為我們當代標志的世界性動亂都是這些激動人心的文件的直接結果。


Europe's Political Revolutions

When individuals and nations have once got in their heads the abstract concept of full-blown liberty, there is nothing like it in its uncontrollable strength. G. W. F. Hegel

Europe's domination of the world in the nineteenth century was based not only on its industrial and scientific revolutions but also on its political revolution. The essence of the political revolution was the end of the concept of a divinely ordained division of people into rulers and ruled. Government was no longer regarded as something above the people and the people as something below the government. Instead, the political revolution for the first time in history, at least on a scale larger than the city-state, called for the identification of government with people. The masses were awakened and activized so that they not only participated in government but also considered it their inherent right to do so. In this chapter we shall consider the general pattern of this political revolution, its origins in the English, American, and French revolutions, and its varied manifestations and worldwide impact during the nineteenth century.

I. PATTERN OF THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION

The political revolution, like the economic, developed in several stages. We noted that the economic revolution began in England, spread to the Continent and to the United States, and later to other parts of the globe. Likewise, the political revolution got under way with the English Revolution in the seventeenth century, developed much further with the American and French revolutions that followed, next affected the whole of Europe during the nineteenth century, and finally engulfed the entire globe during the twentieth.

The parallel course in the spread of the two revolutions was not accidental; indeed, the two were intimately related. The economic revolution was in large degree responsible for the political because it created new classes with new interests and with new ideologies that rationalized those interests. We will see this more clearly as we trace briefly the general course of the economic and political revolutions.

During the early medieva1 period, there were three well-defined social groups in western Europe: the nobility, who constituted a military aristocracy; the clergy, who formed an ecclesiastical and intellectual elite; and the peasants, who labored to support the two upper classes. With the development of commerce, the profile of the medieva1 social order began gradually to change with the appearance of a new element, the urban bourgeoisie. As this class grew in wealth and numbers, it became more and more discontented with the special privileges of the feudal orders and with the numerous restrictions that hampered the development of a free-market economy. Accordingly, the bourgeoisie made a mutually beneficial alliance with the national monarchies. The kings obtained financial support from the bourgeoisie and so were able to assert their authority over the feudal orders. The bourgeoisie in return profited from the establishment of law and order throughout the royal domains. The alliance lasted until it became irksome for the constantly growing middle class. Then the middle class turned against the kings to free itself from royal restrictions on commerce, from a growing burden of taxation, and from restraints on religious freedom. These objectives were important factors in the English, American, and French revolutions. The success of these revolutions also meant the success of classical liberalism -- the new ideology that provided a rationalization for bourgeois interests and objectives. In this sense, liberalism may be defined as the particular program by which the growing middle class proposed to get for itself the benefits and control it was aiming for.

The middle class, with its creed of liberalism, was challenged in turn by the urban workers, or proletariat. With the industrial revolution of the late eighteenth century, the workers in the crowded cities became increasingly class conscious. More and more they felt that their interests were not identical to those of their employers, and that their situation could be improved only by combined action on their part. So the workers, or rather the intellectuals who led them, developed a new ideology, socialism. Socialism directly challenged the liberalism of the bourgeoisie, calling for social and economic change as well as for political reform. We shall see that socialism was to become a major force in European affairs in the late nineteenth century and in world affairs in the twentieth.

Europe's political revolution was powered not only by the dynamic creeds of liberalism and socialism, but also by nationalism -- an ideology that cut across classes and activated great masses of people. Traditionally the first allegiance of these people had been to region or to church. In early modern times it had extended to the new national monarchs. But beginning with the English Revolution, and particularly during the French Revolution, increasing numbers of Europeans gave their loyalty to the new cause of the nation. The rise of national churches, national dynasties, national armies, and national educational systems all combined to transform former ducal subjects, feudal serfs, and town burghers into all-inclusive nations. The new national ideology spread during the nineteenth century from western Europe, where it originated, to all parts of the Continent. Today, in the twentieth century, it is the driving force behind the awakening of formerly subject colonial peoples throughout the world.

These three creeds -- liberalism, socialism, and nationalism -- are the principal components of Europe's political revolution. Together they galvanized into action broader and broader strata of the peoples of Europe, giving them a dynamism and a cohesiveness unequaled in any other portion of the globe. In this way the political revolution, like the scientific and the economic revolutions, contributed vitally to Europe's world domination. When the Europeans began to expand overseas, they encountered societies where there was little rapport between rulers and ruled. The apathy of the masses -- their lack of identification with their governments -- explains why in region after region the Europeans were able to establish and to maintain their rule with little difficulty. India is perhaps the leading example of the extent to which lack of rapport between rulers and ruled made societies vulnerable. India was a society that had remained a disparate collection of peoples, religions, and conflicting provincial loyalties, and so it was easy prey. For over a century and a half, the great Indian subcontinent, with its teeming millions, its splendid civilization, and its ancient historical traditions, was ruled with little difficulty by a comparative handful of British officers and officials. When the mutiny against British rule broke out in 1857, it was put down not only by British troops, but also by Indian troops. The correspondent of the London Times reported this fact with astonishment: "I looked with ever-growing wonder on the vast tributary of the tide of war which was running around and before me. All these men, women and children, with high delight were pouring towards Lucknow to aid the Feringhee [Europeans] to overcome their brethren."

But European political and economic domination inevitably meant the diffusion of European political ideas. Just as the entire globe felt the impact of Stephenson's locomotive, of Fulton's steamship, and Gatling's machine gun, so it felt the impact of the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, and the Communist Manifesto. The worldwide convulsions that are the hallmark of our present age are the direct outcome of these heady documents.


附二:民族主義是最強大的政治力量(參考消息,2011年7月20日)

  文章認為,過去兩個世紀以來,民族主義是世界上最強大的政治力量。民族渴望擁有自己的國家,國家渴望在民眾中培養共同的民族身份。這兩種動力合起來就形成了一種長期的趨勢,造就了越來越多的獨立的民族國家

  【美國《外交政策》雙月刊網站7月15日文章】題:民族主義一統天下(作者 哈佛大學約翰·肯尼迪政治學院教授斯蒂芬·沃爾特)
  世界上最強大的政治力量是什么?一些人可能會說是債券市場,還有人可能提到宗教的夏興或民主人權的迸步,或者還有可能是以互聯網以及和互聯網一同出現的事物為代表的數字科技。或者你認為是核武器以及核武器帶來的種種影響。
  以上選項都值得一提,但是我個人對世界上最強大力量的選擇是民族主義,即認為人類是由許多不同的文化群體所組成的——也就是一個個有著共同的語言、符號以及對歷史的表述(這些表述總是為自身利益服務且充滿了神話)的群體——同時這些群體應該擁有自己的國家的觀點。過去兩個世紀以來,這種觀點一直是世界上最強大的力量。

 推動現代國際政治演進
  近代,正是民族主義鞏固了大多數歐洲列強,把它們從一個個王朝國家變為民族國家,也正是民族主義意識形態的傳播幫助摧毀了大英帝國、法蘭西帝國、奧斯曼帝國、荷蘭帝國、葡萄牙帝國、奧匈帝國和俄羅斯帝國(以及蘇聯)。民族主義是聯合國在1945年成立之初只有51個成員國而到了今天卻有近200個成員國的主要原因。民族主義是猶太復國主義者希望建立一個猶太國家以及今天巴勒斯坦人希望成立一個自己的國家的原因。它也是冷戰時期促使越南人擊敗法國和美國軍隊的原因。它也是庫爾德人和車臣人仍然希望建國、蘇格蘭人要求在聯合王國內獲得更大自主權以及現在南蘇丹共和國成立的原因。
  通過對民族主義強大力量的了解,我們也懂得了今天在歐盟發生的種種事情。冷戰期間,歐洲一體化進程有了蓬勃的發展,這是因為它是在溫室中誕生的,得到了美國的保護。然而到了今天,美國失去了對歐洲安全的興趣,歐洲人要面對的外來威脅也屈指可數,歐盟擴張的步伐走得過大,事先沒有經過充分協商就建立起一個貨幣聯盟的做法也做過了頭。因此,我們今天所看到的就是歐洲的外交政策逐漸回歸到國家手中,這既是因為各國的經濟偏好彼此不相適應,也是因為各國又開始擔心地方身份(也就是民族身份)正受到威脅。丹麥人擔心穆斯林,加泰羅尼亞人要求自治,佛蘭芒人和瓦龍人在比利時你爭我奪,德國人拒絕拯救希臘,沒有人希望土耳其加入歐盟,這就是民族主義在作祟。
  民族主義的力量很容易被現實主義者所理解,正如我的合作人約翰·米爾斯海默在一篇重要的新作中所指出的。各個民族因為是在一個競爭的、有時又是危險的世界里求生,所以總是試圖維護其身份和文化價值觀。很多例子說明,最好的辦法就是建立自己的國家,這是因為那些沒有自己國家的種族或民族常常會被征服、被融合和被同化。
  同樣,現代的國家也有很強的動機去推動民族的統一換句話說就是培育民族主義——因為假使國家擁有一群忠誠而又團結的人愿意為國犧牲,那么國家的實力和應對外部威脅的能力就會大大增強。總之,在一個國際政治派別爭奪激烈的世界里,民族渴望擁有自己的國家,國家渴望在民眾中培養共同的民族身份。這兩種動力合起來就形成了一種長期的趨勢,造就了越來越多的獨立的民族國家。

 民族主義運動不可逆轉
  顯然,民族和國家并不總是能實現建立一個統一的“民族國家”的目標。一些民族從未獲得過獨立,一些國家也無法形成一個統一的民族身份。而且也并非每一個文化或種族群體都認為自己是一個民族或者渴望實現獨立(盡管我們并不知道某個群體何時才開始獲得這種“民族意識”并為之奮斗)。不管怎樣,在過去的幾百年里,國家的數量不斷增加,許多國家都出現了強大的民族主義運動,我認為這一趨勢不可能逆轉。
  一旦建立,民族國家就成為一個自我強化的現象。民族國家很難被征服,因為本土的民眾往往會抵御外來入侵.并不斷反抗外國占領者。成功的民族主義運動往往會成為后來者模仿的對象,從而使人更有建立國家的要求。盡管有時也會有些問題(顯然還有一些“失敗國家”的例子如索馬里、也門或阿富汗),但是在可以預見的未來,民族國家仍將是世界政壇最重要的政治實體。
  由于美國的民族身份往往側重于公民領域,而且往往低估了歷史和文化的因素(盡管也有這些因素存在),所以美國領導人常常低估了本土親和力的力量以及文化忠誠度、種族忠誠度或抵御忠誠度的力量。冷戰期間,我們常常夸大了跨國家的意識形態如共產主義的力量,而低估了民族身份和民族利益最終將會在信奉馬克思主義的國家里引發激烈的沖突。
  本·拉丹也犯了同樣的錯誤,他以為恐怖主義襲擊和幾盤斥責異教徒的錄像帶會點燃群眾運動,從而重新建立一個跨民族的伊斯蘭王國。
  任何認為崛起的中國會順從地屈服于美國或西方的世界秩序理念的人忽視了民族主義也是中國人世界觀的核心組成內容,遠比漸漸消失的“共產主義”理想重要得多。
  總之,除非我們能充分認識到民族主義的力量,否則我們將在很多現代政治事務上犯下大錯。它是世界上最強大的政治力量,無視這一點就將惹來大禍。

http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/15/the_enduring_power_of_nationalism?page=full

「 支持烏有之鄉!」

烏有之鄉 WYZXWK.COM

您的打賞將用于網站日常運行與維護。
幫助我們辦好網站,宣傳紅色文化!

注:配圖來自網絡無版權標志圖像,侵刪!
聲明:文章僅代表作者個人觀點,不代表本站觀點——烏有之鄉 責任編輯:wuhe

歡迎掃描下方二維碼,訂閱烏有之鄉網刊微信公眾號

收藏

心情表態

今日頭條

點擊排行

  • 兩日熱點
  • 一周熱點
  • 一月熱點
  • 心情
  1. “當年明月”的病:其實是中國人的通病
  2. 為什么說莫言諾獎是個假貨?
  3. 何滌宙:一位長征功臣的歷史湮沒之謎
  4. 元龍||美國欲吞并加拿大,打臉中國親美派!
  5. 張勤德|廣大民眾在“總危機爆發期”的新覺醒 ——試答多位好友尖銳和有價值的提問
  6. 為什么“專家”和“教授”們越來越臭不要臉了?!
  7. 俄羅斯停供歐洲天然氣,中國的機會來了?
  8. 華東某地方農村調研總結
  9. 哪些人不敢承認階級斗爭的客觀存在?
  10. ?齡勞動者:延遲退休、社保困境與超齡壓?
  1. 孔慶東|做毛主席的好戰士,敢于戰斗,善于戰斗——紀念毛主席誕辰131年韶山講話
  2. “深水區”背后的階級較量,撕裂利益集團!
  3. 大蕭條的時代特征:歷史在重演
  4. 央媒的反腐片的確“驚艷”,可有誰想看續集?
  5. 瘋狂從老百姓口袋里掏錢,發現的時候已經怨聲載道了!
  6. 到底誰“封建”?
  7. 該來的還是來了,潤美殖人被遣返,資產被沒收,美吹群秒變美帝批判大會
  8. 掩耳盜鈴及其他
  9. 兩個草包經濟學家:向松祚、許小年
  10. “中國人喜歡解放軍嗎?”國外社媒上的國人留言,差點給我看哭了
  1. 北京景山紅歌會隆重紀念毛主席逝世48周年
  2. 元龍:不換思想就換人?貪官頻出亂乾坤!
  3. 遼寧王忠新:必須直面“先富論”的“十大痛點”
  4. 劉教授的問題在哪
  5. 季羨林到底是什么樣的人
  6. 十一屆三中全會公報認為“顛倒歷史”的“右傾翻案風”,是否存在?
  7. 歷數阿薩德罪狀,觸目驚心!
  8. 歐洲金靴|《我是刑警》是一部紀錄片
  9. 我們還等什么?
  10. 只有李先念有理由有資格這樣發問!
  1. 毛主席掃黃,雷厲風行!北京所有妓院一夜徹底關閉!
  2. 劍云撥霧|韓國人民正在創造人類歷史
  3. 孔慶東|做毛主席的好戰士,敢于戰斗,善于戰斗——紀念毛主席誕辰131年韶山講話
  4. 王忠新:清除內奸遠遠難于戰勝外敵——蘇聯“肅反運動”功不可沒
  5. 重慶龍門浩寒風中的農民工:他們活該被剝削受凍、小心翼翼不好意思嗎?
  6. 央媒的反腐片的確“驚艷”,可有誰想看續集?